Saudi Airline Served Donkey Meat Research Paper

Saudi air passage Served Donkey Meat - Research Paper ExampleIt has been revealed by many sources that Saudi Airline had been serving donkey meat during their flights in the past few months. 2. Reality Behind the Incident 2.1 Ignored Warnings from a Local Body In the month of June 2011, several sources reported that Saudi Airline had been serving donkey meat to their customers as a result of negligence to the warnings given by concerned authorities. A senior quizzer at the Saudi Airlines supply department said that the airlines had received many warnings from Saudi Arabias General Food and Drugs Authority somewhat their imports from Tunisia since the respective country was suffering from contagious diseases among their cattle (Donkey meat on Saudi Arabian airline?). The warnings also included aspects about the ordinary sale of donkey and horse meat in the Arab country but the Saudi Airlines management did non pay attention to any of these warnings and reports. The senior inspec tor further said that these warnings made the airline stop importing meat from Tunisia when it had already been served to their customers for cheeseparingly a month. However, Chusid stated that the donkey meat was being served as beef and it continued for more than a single month. Alongside the possibility of it being donkey meat, the presence of diseased meat in Tunisia also did non alarm the authorities to stop the supply of the meat on an urgent basis. He stated that one of the reasons for such a late reaction seat be the low price for which the meat was being bought. One factor that may have led to the lowering price of the meat was that the meat was near its expiration dates. Therefore, it can be stated that low priced meat was preferred by the management irrespective of the animal it came from. Lesser expense on the buy of food might have increased their revenues but can certainly cause a crash in their customer loyalty. 2.2 Unexpected Behavior from a 3-Star Airline Saudi Airlines is a 3-Star airline (The Worlds 3-Star Airlines). As per the standards of SkyTrax that has been set to provide rating for different airlines, 3-Star airlines provide satisfactory standard of foreign mission critical run in numerous travel categories. Food is one of the most important categories in the rating of any airline. Donkey meat is not expected to be served by any airline and definitely not from a 3-Star one as it is expected to meet certain criteria. Customers avail the services of airlines on the basis of their ratings such irresponsible and appalling behavior from a 3-Star airline makes the customers doubt the credibility of the ratings, along with the respective airline. Chusid stated that it could not be known from the reporting of the local newspapers if it was served to the business class, the economy class or both. 2.3 Prohibition to Eat Donkey Meat in the Countrys religion Saudi Airlines is owned by Muslims and is considered to be flag carrier airline of a Muslim country, Saudi Arabia. Muslims follow the religion of Islam Islam has allowed some foods, whereas some types of foods are forbidden for its followers. Donkey meat is considered to be forbidden to be eaten by Muslims (The Fiqh of Halal and Haram Animals). Their Holy Book of Quran states that these animals are designated for being ridden on, not for consumption. The usage of a forbidden meat in an airline of Muslim origin

The Role of Leader Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Role of Leader - Essay ExampleLeadership correct motivates the mass to improve their perfor piece of musicce related to work and creates a positive change within an organisation. Leadership provides a new way of thinking as well as generate new ideas for effectiveness of the organizations in relation to the attainment of the organisational objectives. Leadership generally aims to bring out the best in people to make them work better and achieve a common goal (The ASPIRA Association, n.d.) In addition, attractorship can also be referred as a region of creating a vision in order to obtain the desired objectives of the organisation successfully by guiding the workforce, communicating and even ramp uping trust among them and the leader so that they can work better (Oklahoma State University, 2006). The main aim of this piece of music is to understand different theories of leaders and their application in the organisation. Furthermore this paper will also describe the different role and style of leaders. Theories of Leadership The role of every leader is different from one another. Leaders are a lot observed to bump their own style of leadership and follow different leadership theories according to the requirement of the situation that they need to face in their organisations. In this regards, various theoretical frameworks or theories have been developed which explains some of the major leadership traits possessed by leaders. A few of the theories are Great man conjecture, Trait possible action, Contingency theory, Transformational theory, Behavioural theory, and Transactional theory. According to great man theory, it is believed the people are born to lead. Leaders develop their own leadership qualities. This theory includes the members of uplifted personality, industrial heads. On the other hand, trait theory is quite similar to the great man theory. The theory emphasizes on physical traits, tasks assigned to the leader, and social as well as pers onal ability of the leader among others in order to explain the leadership style. However, the contingency theory is more progressive. As per the contingency theory, leadership style should be consistent with the situation faced by the organisation to achieve the goals and objectives. In transformational theory the leaders are often observed to build a trust amid the organisational participants, motivate and engage with subordinates to increase the morality of the followers as well as the leader. The leaders also help the followers to develop their potentials and satisfy their needs with the aim to attain the desired organisational goal (Transformational Leadership, 2010). In the similar context, behavioural theory attempts to highlight the effectiveness of a leader. The behavioural theory mainly focuses on the perceptions, actions, and activities of an individual while performing any task, based on previous experience. This theory is a type of mental understanding which facilitates the actions of an entity. This theory also helps an individual or leader to take accurate decisions, which would be beneficial in accomplishing the assigned duties. It measures the confidence level and loyalty of the leader that how well they can lead and execute strategies into actions. In this theory it is believed that one has to learn effective leadership as human beings are not born with the take qualities of a good leader and thus need to develop the leadership qualit

News Story - Emirates vs Canada Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

News Story - Emirates vs Canada - Article ExampleEmirates executives have argued that such an expansion could potentially create 2,800 jobs across Canada and retort up to $480m in additional economic activity(The Economist). This proclamation did convince the premiers of Alberta and British Columbia to certain extend. However, Air Canada being the only respiratory tract warm to South Asia demanded the increase in UAE airline would only benefit UAE and will hurt Canada financially. The Canadians pointed out that the UAE airlines want to carry passengers to Canada from India and Pakistan using Dubai as hub. The author comments that the gulf airline has proved to be successful even during the recession and captured the travel market throughout Asia, Europe and America. According to some officials the treatment of Dubai government towards airline industry is not up to the mark. Most governments around the world treat aviation as a pariah, choking its growth with costly, misdirected r egulation, instead of adopting policies that recognize its vast socio-economic benefits and support its sustainable growth(The Economist).Moreover, the tax policy also creates hindrance to the growth and development of airline industry. Critical analysis of the dispute between Canadian and U.A.E airlines A) Main reason for dispute The dispute between Canadian and U.A.E airline companies has created big problems between the relationships of these countries. The main thing for despise between these countries could have been the agile action of the U.A.E. government to close down the air base. U.A.E., being the fastest going airline industry had landing agreements with Canada for the dioramas of growing their market share as airline industry. The main reason for the dispute between these two nations started with the UAE government asking for more landing rights from their Canadian counterparts. According to the landing agreement write in 1999, the Emirati airline was allowed to fly only 6 times a week .But, during 2007, UAE airline officials demanded an increase in the flight traffic to boost up the sales potential. This request by UAE has undoubtedly irritated the Canadian officials nevertheless they did reconsider the request delivered by the UAE officials. They have understood that by giving additional landing rights they can very well be benefited in expanding their travel market. This negotiation between the two countries broiled for many years without ending in any agreeable outcome. However, the problem aroused in 2010, when the Canadian military approached U.A.E to share their military air base to service its operation for Afghanistan mission. U.A.E took this opportunity to leaven the vengeance by giving a non -renewable three- month lease to the Canadian military. Change in the attitude of Canadian authorities In the November of 2010 it was reported that in that respect was change in the minds of Canadian official as to the expansion of landing ri ghts to the U.A.E. Canada was ready to offer more landing slots to U.A.E in areas like Calgary and Vancouver considering the business prospect it could bring to their country. N mavintheless, U.A.E found out that there was a decrease in the capacity offered by Canada in air passenger travel which led to their offence. If one look at the whole situation, U.A.E. was right in demanding additional landing rights as this was useful to both the countries in expanding their travel market. Since U.A.E had a considerable cadence of Canadian citizens, an addition in the flight

Conservation areas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

saving areas - Essay ExampleThen the stakeholders in the Denham Conservation Area go away be identified. Criteria for determining the effectiveness and impact of the regulations governing the area will then be considered. Subsequently, using the criteria defined the success, or lack thereof, of the regulations governing the Denham Conservation Area will be evaluated. Finally, the analysis will conclude with recommendations for how the instrument or its implementation might be improved, and identification of what more information is needed to provide a full evaluation.The instrument under consideration is the South Bucks district Council, Denham Conservation Area Character Appraisal as it impacts on residents and dimension owners within the Conservation area. The Conservation Area was designated under the authority granted to local councils under the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 (c. 9).(a)shall from time to time watch which parts of their area are areas of special architectural or historic interest the character or appearance of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance, andThe look involved consultation with historic maps and parish records as well as surveys of the natural and build features of the area under consideration, examination of individual structures, and consideration of sight lines and other(a) factors. Appendix I illustrates one of the historic maps that was used in the research process and Appendix II illustrates the boundaries of the conservation area and listed buildings within it.The South Bucks District Council publication, Conservation Areas Guidance for Residents details the constraints imposed by the regulations that are applicable within the conservation area. Conservation Area Consent is required for Demolition of unlisted buildings with a volume of 115 cu. M. or more and demolition of boundary walls over a certain height. (South Bucks District Council, 2009, n.p.)Additionally,

Sales and Distribution Essay Example for Free

Sales and Distribution Es enjoinCompany Snapshot CEAT Limited RPG tyre manufacture Automobiles Born tough Take it on Products are know for durability and superior fictitious character Parent Company Category Sector Tagline/ Slogan USP Manufacturing units 4 Location of manufacturing units 3 in India- B fleetup, Halol, Nashik and 1 in Srilanka organic capacity 940,000 Tyres per month Distribution Coverage 186 Districts Clearing and Forward Agents 112 Dealership over 3500 Company owned showrooms 70(in 2012 to be change magnituded to 200 by 2013) wide-cut sales(in Rupees) INR 4492. 03 Crores (in 2012) Increase in sales y-o-y 27.35% (2011 to 2012) Business Markets segmentation (B2B, B2C, B2G) B2B B2G B2C Heavy-duty Trucks and Buses Cars Light Commercial Vehicles SUVs Earthmovers Forklifts Tractors Trailers Motorcycles and Scooters Auto-rickshaws IBS Hyderabad Page 3 Quotes to Quote Quality for us is more than state-of-the-art, we would say its state-of-the-mind. When you think right, you always deliver right. -CEAT. in Website For the man who counts signals to reach home safely. For the woman who drops her child to school. For the vendor who has to reach the market in time.For the young passenger who wants to race the wind we make quality our responsibility. And we take our responsibility seriously. -CEAT. in Website We believe that our brand must help our consumers in doing their businesses better or support them in leading a better, safer life. -Vinod Kumar, GM, Marketing, CEAT Ltd We dont believe in flashing numbers, we let quality do our talking. And it is with reason that CEAT marks the highest exports from India in truck, OTR and LCV categories. -CEAT, Network, Citation date- 16th Jan 2013, http//www. ceat.in/newsite/universal/network. asp IBS Hyderabad Page 4 II. Economies and Industry Overview i. Economy- Overview The recent financial year (2011-12) was challenged much by the critical waves from different geographies and has hit the world bu sinesses at a large scale. The Europe sovereign debt crisis and its skepticism on its potential to become a global meltdown pushed the investor confidence again after the 2008 crisis. Inspite of the government? s reforms and third party? s (UNO, World Bank, etc) assistance the economies are still fragile and recovering at a much slower phase.With US and other developed nations recover slow, developing nations has become the sweet spot for many. India sustained its growth estimates very close to that of the RBI estimates to 6. 9% in 2011-12 (CSO estimates). Still India has mounting challenges in infrastructure, inflation, fluctuations in the value of rupee, political instability etc. In reference to it the road map of 12th 5 year plans (2013-17) brings optimism, which expects the growth to 7. 4 to 7. 6% in 2013 (FY) and 8. 6 per cent in 2014 (FY) with some major policy reforms (FDI, taxation, etc) interpreted into account.Tyre Industry- Overview The demand for tires globally by 201 5 is expected to be in the value of 3. 3 billion units (USD 220 bn) with a 4. 7% annual growth in units. The APAC region (Asia Pacific) is the largest market for tyres and signals strong demand in the future. The increase in income of the developing countries would be supported with the demand for automobiles thus would ultimately create a demand for tyres (World Tyre Report). India has the organized tyre maket (apart from bicycle tyre industry) and is dominated by cross ply tyres.Major contributor to the industry is the Commercial Vehicle (CV) tyres followed by Passenger Vehicle (PV) tyres. Remaining share is taken over by the 2 and 3 wheelers, tractors, construction equipment and Off-The-Road (OTR) tyres. The size of the Indian tyre industry in 2011-12 was around Rs. 389 billion, and is estimated to reach Rs. 443 billion in 2012-13, with 14 per cent growth. One important segment of tyre industry, i. e OEMs (Automobile Manufacturers) are bound to grow in the future but frequent hi kes in pursuit rates, rise in fuel prices, high inflation.Reviving the India Growth Story, Union Budget 2012 by PricewaterhouseCoopers IBS Hyderabad Page 5 etc slows down the growth of automobile field. The sector that grew 30% in 2010-11 grew only to 2% in 2011-12. 2 (See table Categorywise Tyre Production Exports in India for FY 2010-11 and 2011-12 to have full picture of Indian tyre production and exports) The Indian tyre industry- Snapshot Total turnover Tyre Production (Tonnage) Total Tyre Production in all categories Number of companies Companies function Rs.389 billion Rs. 14. 88 lacs MT 1,192 lacs 39 Top 10 companies account for over 95 per cent of the total production Source Automotive Tyre Manufacturers Association (ATMA) There three broad areas through which Indian Tyre Industry creates demands (% contribution by each segment in 2011-12 are given below), The 2011-12 growth of tyre industry is completely attributed to the increased export contribution and particularly from the bus and truck segment. Different Segments % Contribution to Indian Tyre Industry in 2011-12Replacement Market 26 63 OEMs Exports a. Replacement market- The nature of the replacement market is the margin creator. This is the important spot through which the manufacturers has an upper hand (relative to other segments) and hence it dominates the Indian tyre industry. With the increase in number of driving licenses registered, with increasing self driving habits in India, whereby the tyre gets depreciated soon, there is a large scope for the replacement market? s growth. b.Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM)- The OEM segment has dominance over the tyre manufacturers due to the competition and uniformity in quality hence it has thin margins but plays with high volumes. In this segment the tyre manufacturers reputation, 2 The Economic Times, January 2012 IBS Hyderabad Page 6 capacity to supply large orders, working(a) together, quick delivery with customization and price pla ys dominant role in securing and retaining an OEM. Due to uncertain global conditions and job market it is expected to grow modestly at a rate of 11-13% in 2012-13.

Teaching Theories Essay Example for Free

Teaching Theories EssayThe purpose of this report is to research theories, frameworks and the different aspects relating to the effects of inclusive learning and teaching of modify pupils We continu exclusivelyy face challenges in supporting the learning of our students in our changing world. The curriculum that frames our learning and teaching practices are developed from research and learning theories. Expectations accent knowing how to learn and how to understand, feeler and use preparedness gained. In the first half of the 20th century two theories dominated the way we learnt, Pavlov and Skinner were potent figures with their extensive research largely based on laboratory studies of animals. Skinners operant conditioning theories (Baldwin and Baldwin 1986) uses a mixture of positive and negative reinforcement to control learners behaviours. Operant conditioning is such a fundamental aspect of learning and is to a fault effective in behaviour management.This is achi eved entirely through communicative feedback, for both positive and negative reinforcement, on a negative this surmisal focused on observable behaviour and less on what learners gained in knowledge. In the middle of the 20th century research began to look closely into acquisition of knowledge, although the teacher still played the most active role. In the1970s research moved away from laboratories and into more natural learning situations, this showed learners playing an active and strategic role in their own learning. Piagets theory had a wide impact on teaching methods a this time and remains wizard of the most important cognitive development theories in education to date, although further yard suggests Piaget underestimated the ability of infants and children as well as not accounting for mortal differences. Constructivist theory works well with incapacitate learners, due to the fact that the learners do not seem so overwhelmed and frustrated and it aids in motivating the s tudents.Teachers should prioritize and teach the most important facts relating to key ideas, the main aim and purpose of implementing this theory is intended to not cause undue stress or reason for the learners to feel overwhelmed with having to take on board and memorize too much information at any given time. The teacher should utilise techniques such as brainstorming in order to access and asses the skills and abilities gained by the students on an on-going basis, Students pot jump their own progress and errors and gain feelings of trust and success. Although the behaviourist theories are positive in that they suggestbreaking down tasks into small manageable segments, the best teaching practices tend to integrate ideas from all of the theory linguistic rules and integrate them to produce a more successful outcome.Research enables us to understand how learning occurs, thus enabling the teachers to select and design the curriculum and look at the learning environments and the strategies for teaching and assessing those which support disabled learning. Knowing how to support the learning process for our students and implementing and identifying the theories and principles concerned, allows us to piddle and enjoy rich learning and life experiences for all those involved. Learning is central to economic success Those who are separate educationally are also disadvantaged economically and socially equity and viability dictate that all should kick in the opportunity to succeed. (Kennedy 199715)People with disabilities experience stigma be attached to them which can on cause be more detrimental and painful than the disability itself. Many children are kept at home or are institutionalised in one form or another this tends to occur due to the lack of support for families and the feeling of worthlessness. The stigma attached to disabled people such as being frowned upon and seen as being a hindrance and a drain on society can form such opinions as for exam ple theres no point in educating disabled people as they are incapable of working or contributing to society Attitudes are made of individual personal experiences as well as feelings, reactions and beliefs of the past. This consequently forms a cluster of set ideas which are called stereotypes. Bohner and Wanke (2002, p.5) defined it attitude is a summary evaluation of an purpose of thought.As attitudes influence perception, thinking, other attitudes and behaviour, they contribute significantly to a persons psychological make-up. The negatives of stereotyping are they can lead people to assume all members of a set group possess similar features and/or act in the same way. As these are handed down from generation to generation stereotyping needs to be challenged in all manners so that we can educate others and aid disabled learners in reaching their full potential and having the confidence to do so. Disabled people developed the social model of disability because the traditional me dical model didnt explain their personal experience ofdisability or help develop more inclusive ways of living. The social model dictates that disability is a reflection of the way society is organised, whereas the medical model looks at what is wrong with the person instead of the needs of the person.An example of the above would be a learner with visual impairment having to read something for the win of their studies, unfortunately under the medical model solutions are far and few between, an example of a social model solution would be giving access to a full- text audio recording. Inclusive education is the practice of teaching disabled students alongside their non-disabled peers within regular classroom settings, instead of segregating them into special classrooms. The principle of inclusion is based on the idea that every person has a right to belong and be included in the education community. This has benefits for both disabled and non-disabled learners as both can learn diff erent skills from each other.Inclusive learning promotes autonomy and personal growth, quality of life depending on their ability to purpose choice and self-determination, self-worth and esteem, the building of meaningful relationships and peer role models for academic, social and behavioural skills. Adaptations facilitate access to the general education curriculum (Fisher Frey, 2001) for inclusion to be successful, its necessity to implement adaptations that meet individual student needs (Cross, Traub, Hutter-Pishgahi, Shelton, 2004). For the non-disabled learners it aids in developing other skills such as empathy, acceptance, skill acquisition and problem solving. It also encourages respect and acceptance for individual differences and preparation of a learners future in an inclusive society. Communication and Collaboration are at the eye of learning and change, between all those involved.Practitioners have obligations under legislation including Part 4 of the Education Act 1 996 and the Disability Discrimination Act 1995. They also have obligations including a requirement to have regard to the SEN Code of Practice.Bernes (1973) Transactional analysis theory is a method of analysing communicating using three personality states the child, the parent and the adult. This helps us to reflect on our communications with others and bemindful in our approaches when doing so.Communication itself has a huge impact on the learners and inclusive learning there is a lot to consider when looking at modifications needed. Teachers need to be aware of the environment provided, such as seating arrangements and background noise and ensure that the communication is accurate, jargon free, and work is prioritised with sub headings and explanations are brief and clear.Any expectations regarding learners are stated firmly. Visuals aids and trips beyond the setting are required to extend the learners experiences and imaginations joined with the need for any worksheets to be pr oofread before handing to the students.The information must be accessible in all different formats and text should cover equality, specialization and inclusiveness. Above all there must be an importance with respect to the development of inclusive learning as active listening to learners voices aids them to gain a feeling of belonging and provides them with the willingness to participate.Inclusive learning comes with a wide range of challenges. National exams fail to always accommodate the students diverse backgrounds and needs, and so does the curriculum which tends to be content heavy and lack flexibility. Budgets for education services to supply resources required to support learners is problematic and so is access to some environment/ settings. Lack of involvement and support from our learners family can also cause barriers that need to be overcome. Lack of training for staff is a huge issue as lack of communication skills to communicate with learners with a disability can cause underachievement and low expectations, also lesson preparedness that covers learners diverse needs and cultural backgrounds takes more consideration and time as designing such teaching materials to suit all is a challenge.In closing theories are required to continue to develop through further research to enable our learners to further their skills and reach their full potential. Inclusive learning techniques and practices are required to ensure the progression of disabled learners within society andprovide the opportunity to change the misconception of disabilities and their impact. The education process and all those involved needs to implement, review, adjust and sift to overcome and manage barriers faced by the learners on a day to day basis. The question is no longer which approach is best but how we can apply what has been learned from each model in a way that can produce positive outcomes such as attainment and achievement.

Information system development life cycle models Essay Example for Free

study outline using life cycle models EssayHealth data sleep togetherrs must understand the comp peerlessnts of info clays and how selective data systems affect the agreement, individuals within the organization, and interested publics outside the organization. tuition systems pull up stakes opportunities to improve internal surgerys, create competitive profit in the marketplace, improve patient-c are delivery, enhance research, and provide better service.Information system risk occurs when the systems are non well integrated, are poorly managed, or do not support the goals of the organization. In order to exploit information system opportunities and minimize threats and risks, a thorough understanding of information system components and how these relate to the organization is necessary. An information system is composed of a group of components ( raft, clip processes, data, and information technologies) that move through defined relationships to fulfill a goa l. Information systems must be able to adapt to environmental change. A good example of a health-related information system is an order entry system. The goal of the system is to process physician orders.The system is composed of a group of components including people (nurses, physicians, unit secretaries, laboratory personnel), data, work processes, and information technologies. Each of these components interacts through defined relationships. fails to accommodate the environment or if the interactions among its component parts fail, the system becomes nonfunctional and disintegrates. Thus, a system must be composed of a group of components that Interact through defined relationships get going toward accomplishing a goal Self-adapt and respond to environmental changesFigure 2-1 provides an example of the relationship of these characteristics. An information system is composed of a group of components (people, work processes, data, and information technologies) that interact thr ough defined relationships to accomplish a goal. Information systems must be able to adapt to environmental change. A good example of a health-related information system is an order entry system.The goal of the system is toprocess physician orders. The system is composed of a group of components including people (nurses, physicians, unit secretaries, laboratory personnel), data, work processes, and information technologies. Each of these components interacts through defined relationshipsThe peoples enter orders in a predefined musical mode through a data entry utmost (hardware) and through interaction with software. Through the predefined interactions amongst the hardware and software, the order is processed.The order entry system is self-adapting and able to accommodate environmental changes such as order volume. The example pictured in Figure 2-2 demonstrates the characteristics of a system as applied to an information system component parts working in predefined relationships that can self-adapt to environmental changes to accomplish a common goal. As the bidirectional arrows depict in Figure 2-2, at any given time there is a potential many-sided interaction between all system components. People interact or are affected by work practices, data, and information technologies.Work practices affect people and may be impacted by data availability and information technologies. Information technologies may affect work practices, people, and the input, processing, or dissemination of data.Thus, we see that information components are highly relate. Recognizing these interrelationships is very important, since a hassle with one component will likely adversely impact all different components within an information system. When information system problems arise, it is crucial that all information system components and their relationships be examinedSystem ElementsSystems have three principal elements inputs, processing mechanisms, and widenings. Figure 2-3 dep icts their simple relationship. In the order entry example given previously, inputs include physician orders such as laboratory, radiology, or pharmacy orders that are entered in a figurer terminal on the patient-assist unit. The orders are subjected to several processing mechanisms that check their consistency and completeness before they are routed to the set aside department. The output of the system is a requisition for a specialized type of test, procedure, or pharmaceutical.In addition to inputs, processes, and outputs, most systems also have afeedback loop. Feedback provided by the system influences future inputs. In the order entry example, feedback regarding nonavailability of an tell drug in the pharmacy department inventory might be provided to the physician. In this case, the system might suggest what alternatives or substitutes are availableInformation System ComponentsAll definitions of an information system must embody the essence of the four system characteristics that were previously presented. Thus, an information system is a group of interrelated and self-adapting components working through defined relationships to collect, process, and disseminate data and information for accomplishment of specific organizational goals.The components of an information system should be broadly interpreted. For example, information system components should be viewed to include people, work procedures, data, and information technologies (Alter, 1992). Although organizational goals may not be specifically included in the components of an information system, they must be viewed as the driving force for the development, design, execution of instrument, and evaluation of information systems. Each information system must be evaluated in harm of its contribution to meeting the goals of the organization Information System TypesIn Chapter 2, six types of information systems are discussed transaction processing systems (TPS), management information systems (MIS), finding support systems (DSS), executive information systems (EIS), expert systems (ES), and positioning automation systems (OAS). Early systems in health care were principally transaction processing systems. These systems automated operational functions such as accounting, payroll, inventory, and admission/discharge systems. Later, other transaction systems, such as order entry, were added to the capabilities.Management information systems emerged in the late 1970s and gradually became more sophisticated during the 1980s. One factor influencing the fruit of MIS during this period was the introduction of the national prospective payment (diagnostic-related groups or DRGs) system for Medicare patients. Beca manipulation of DRG implementation, hospitals needed information systems that provided better filtered and formatted data for making managerial and strategic decisions.Theimplementation of DRGs also revealed the weaknesses of current information systems in linking and integrati ng data. Weaknesses associated with the proliferation of stand-alone systems and the historical emphasis on financial systems became magnified during the 1980s coieraWhen the same kind of decision is made on a regular basis, it will require access to the same kind of data and may use the same knowledge. In these circumstances, one can develop a regular process or information system to accomplish the task. An information system could thus be anything from the routine way in which a clinician records patient details in a pocket notebook, the way a triage nurse assesses patients on arrival in an emergency department, through to a complex computer-based system that regulates payments for healthcare services. An information system is distinguished from other systems by its components, which include data and models. Recall from the last chapter that there are several different kinds of information model, including databases and knowledge bases.These different information components can be put together to create an information system. For example, consider a electronic computer that can store data and equations in its memory. The data store is the calculators database, and the equation store is its knowledge base. The input to the calculator becomes the equation to be solved, as well as the values of data to plug into the equation. The database communicates with the knowledge base using a simple communication channel within the device, and the output of the system is the value for the solved equation (Figure 3.6).There are many potential internal components that could be included within an information system, including a database, a knowledge base, an ontology, and decision procedures or rules of inference. The different components of an information system are connected together with input/output channels, which allow data to be shifted between the components as needed.A patient record system is a more complex example of an information system. Its purpose is to reco rd data just about finical patients in some formalized fashion to assist in the control Wager2009An information system (IS) is an arrangement of information (data), processes, people, and information engineering science that interact to collect,process, store, and provide as output the information needed to support the organization (Whitten Bentley, 2005). Note that information technology is a component of every information system.Information technology is a contemporary term that describes the combination of computer technology (hardware and software) with data and telecommunications technology (data, image, and voice networks). Often in current management literature the terms information system and information technology are used interchangeably.6.1.1 What Is a System?shortliffeUntil now, we have referred informally to health information systems and computer systems. What do we call up when we refer to a system? In the most general sense, a system is an organized set of proce dures for accomplishing a task. It is described in terms of (1) the problem to be solved (2) the data and knowledge required to address the problem and (3) the internal process for transforming the available input into the desired output (Figure 6.1). When we talk about systems in this book, we usually mean computer-based (or just computer) systems. A computer system combines both manual and automated processes people and machines work in concert to manage and use information. A computer system has these components Hardware The physical equipment, including processing units (e.g., the central processing unit (CPU)), data-storage devices, comunication equipment, terminals, and printers Software The computer programs that direct the hardware to course out the automated processesi.e., to respond to user requests and schedules, to process input data, to store some data for long periods, and to communicate informative results to the users at times the software will prompt the users to perform manual processes System Design and Engineering in Health Care 235 Customers The users who interact with the software and hardware of the system, issue requests, and use the results or forward them to others there will be other users who are concerned with providing input, system operations, backup, and maintenance The role of a computer is, broadly speaking, the passage of data into information. Every piece of data must be supplied by a person, by another computer system, or by data aggregationequipment, as seen in patient monitoring (see Chapter 17). Information that is output is delivered to health care professionals or becomes input to another computer system. In other words, a medical computer system is a module within the overall health care delivery system.The overall health care system not only determines the need for the computer system (e.g., which data must be processed and which reports must be generated) but also the requirements for the systems operation (e.g. , the degree of reliability and responsiveness to requests for information). Acquisition and operation of a computer system has implications for the organization of an institution. Who controls the information? Who is responsible for the accuracy of the data? How will the system be financed?The installation of a computer system has sociological consequences as well. The introduction of a new system alters the work routines of health care workers. Furthermore, it may affect the traditional roles of health care workers and the existing relationships among groups of individualse.g., between physicians and nurses, between nurses and patients, and between physicians and patients.Important ethical and legal questions that arise include the confidentiality of patient information, the appropriate role of computers in patient care (especially in medical decision making), and the responsibility of developers and users for ensuring the correct operation of the system (see Chapter 10). Although the technical challenges in system development must be met, organizational factors are crucial determinants of the success of a computer system within the institution. These factors can differ greatly among institutions and can reach out the transfer of a well-functioning system to another site difficult.6.1.2 Functions of a Computer SystemComputers have been used in every aspect of health care delivery, from the simple processing of business data, to the collection and interpretation of physiological data, to the education of physicians and nurses. Each chapter in Unit II of this book describes an important area for the industriousness of computers in biomedicine. The unique characteristics of each problem area create special requirements for system builders to address.The motivationfor investing in these applications, however, is the computers ability to assistant health professionals in some aspect of information management. We identify eight topics that define the range of b asic functions that may be provided by medical computer systems1. Data acquisition and presentation2. Record keeping and access3. Communication and integration of information4. Surveillance5. Information storage and retrieval6. Data psychoanalysis7. Decision support8. Education.