Amazing Grace Essay

In the movie Amazing Grace was a horrible yet completely realistic conditions of the most poor, rundown neighborhoods and districts in New York City. During the 18th century millions of men, woman and children were taken from their homes in Africa and sold into slavery. Few survived the slave trade was wrong, and to find one who had the courage to stand-up against it seemed impossible. Humanity needed a hero, someone who could establish equally. The movie Amazing Grace tells the account of an Englishman who gave his health and youth to end slave trade. Like hero’s history and literature, William Wilberforce’s story followed the archetype of a traditional hero. William Wilberforce was an example of a common mortal hero. He was a normal, completely realistic person, in that he stumbled many times and often emphasized his humanity by saying, â€Å"Am I not a man?†After years of work without success he felt he had failed, but he still pressed forward. He possessed no extraordinary power or skill, but he rose to the occasion and changed the world. Not only was William one of the few who was disgusted by the slave trade ,he was also one of the select few who had the courage to stand up against it. Someone once said, â€Å"Courage does not consist in feeling no fear, but in conquering fear.†William Wilberforce was an ordinary man, but he was able to overcome fear and be a hero. However, he would not have been able to do it without the help of many friends. Loyal companions have played a large role in many hero stories, and the story of William Wilberforce is not different. William Pitt, the Prime Minister, was William’s best friends. He was able to keep Wilberforce in good standing and also assisted in the eventual success of his bill which banned the slave trade. William Pitt also encouraged him to keep trying. William Pitt was one of the main reasons for his friend’s success. Without him, William Wilberforce would have quit, and even if he had continued trying he would never had been able to pass his bill. Many other heroic friends played a part in William’s success. These included Hannah Moore, a well respected and religious lady, Tomas Clarkson, a passionate and powerful speaker, and Equiano a former slave. Perhaps most important was the role of William’s love, Barbara Spooner. Barbra Spooner was the woman figure in this hero story. She was a huge source of inspiration for William, and her  intellect attracted him. It was Barbra who succeeded in helping William get back on track to save the slaves. Barbra brought William through the darkest moments of discouragement by offering the encouraging words, after night comes day. You still have passion that’s what matters most. William Wilberforce was a traditional hero. Although just a common man, he was able to become the hero humanity needed. Character archetypes, such as William’s friends and his love, as well as situational and symbolic archetypes, occur throughout this story defining it as the legacy of a hero. William however will return to his family, lay his head on his pillow and remember that the slave trade is no more. Through his work to establish equality, William Wilberforce added his name to the list of people who made great sacrifices for the greater good people known as heroes. I think they named it Amazing Grace because it was a hard and amazing establishment, so they named it after the song.

Advantages That Multinations Have Over Domestically Focused Companies

In this age of globalization, companies are seeking to expand businesses across borders and consequently there are more and more multinational companies. A multinational corporation is one that is based in one country while maintaining manufacturing facilities or operations offices in other countries and markets its products or services on an international basis. A multinational corporation is able to take advantage of special economically advantageous opportunities that exist in the countries where it operates, such as a low labor cost or favorable rate of currency exchange.They also enjoy access to a diversified workforce that gives them greater creative competitive edge. The reasons why companies seek to expand across borders are: to open new markets or to hold onto existing ones; to avoid tariffs or other trade restrictions; to tap new sources of raw materials and agricultural production; and to take advantage of cheap foreign labor. The most significant aspect of multinational c orporations is that they enjoy major tax and investment advantages. Tax Advantages: Business taxation varies from country to country.While there are high tax countries like the United States, Great Britain and the People's Republic of China (PRC), there are low tax countries like Belize, the Cayman Islands and the Bahamas. A multinational corporation can pick its tax jurisdiction and thus limit its tax obligations. Doing so translates instantly into greater profits. On the contrary, any domestic company will be subject to taxation on its profits in that country and there is no question of choice (Kate, 2006). Lowering Taxes:Most multinational corporations look for tax holidays when seeking a foreign base for their manufacturing plant. However the tax holiday offer is meaningless in the US and Singapore as companies in these places companies are taxed on their global income. Multinational companies enjoy the advantage of having the choice to get the best combination of location, labo r market, and government corporate benefits. Funding opportunities: Multinational corporations have regular access to funding opportunities unavailable to domestic companies.The money provided by the government in return for creating jobs reduces the multinational corporation's overhead, diminishes business risk and increases profits. It has been found that any company with an established export market outside of the manufacturing country's domestic market can recover most – almost 50-75% – of the expenditure in setting up a new plant. This is mainly because of the support of the government (Kate, 2006). Tariffs Can Be Circumvented: Multinational corporations can dodge tariffs by proper planning.If a MNC wants instant free trade access to both the EU and the USA, it will start manufacturing in Israel. If there is a low-tech product that needs free trade access to the EU, it is best to make it in Senegal, since they have a free trade agreement with France. The list of b ypasses around tariffs is long and grows as NAFTA and the EU expand (Kate, 2006). Accounting advantages: Multinational pooling arrangement is an agreement between the head office of a multinational company and an insurance network, which allows – at an accounting stage – the consolidation of the worldwide experience.This network allows: better management of the worldwide risk and improved reporting; up-front local savings due to economies of scale and potential international dividends; improved local terms & conditions due to network leverage; easier transfer of employees within the entity and reinsurance protection against individual peaks or catastrophic events (DF, 2006). Advantage of Transfer Pricing: When one part of a multinational organization in one country transfers goods, services or know-how to another part in another country, the price charged for these goods or services is called ‘transfer price'.This may be a purely arbitrary figure, meaning by this that it may be unrelated to costs incurred, may be unrelated to operations carried out or to added value. The transfer price can be set at a level which reduces or even cancels out the total tax which has to be paid by the multinational. In other words it is possible for a multinational company to minimize its liability for corporation tax by transfer pricing (Davidmann, 2006). According to the US law, multinational corporations, whether American- or foreign-owned, are supposed to pay taxes on the profits they earn in the United States.However, in reality, foreign-owned corporations doing business in the United States, typically pay far less in U. S. income taxes than domestic companies. Even U. S. -owned multinationals utilize such tax evasion loopholes. Companies try to set their â€Å"transfer prices† to shift income away from the United States and shift deductible expenses into the United States (CTJ, 2006). Asset Protection: Multinational companies often use offshore ce nters to restructure their ownership of assets. Through trusts, foundations or through an existing corporation company wealth ownership can be transferred from people to other legal entities.Many companies which are concerned about lawsuits or lenders foreclosing on outstanding debts choose to transfer a portion of their assets to an entity that holds it outside of their home country. By making these ownership transfers, these companies can escape seizure or other domestic troubles (Investopedia, 2006) . Confidentiality: Many offshore jurisdictions offer multinational companies the added advantage of secrecy legislation. These countries have enacted laws establishing strict corporate and banking confidentiality.If this confidentiality is breached, there are serious consequences for the offending party. An example of a breach of banking confidentiality is divulging customer identities; disclosing shareholders is a breach of corporate confidentiality in some jurisdictions. To a multin ational company, this secrecy of personal information can offer significant financial and legal advantage. Because nations are not required to accept the laws of a foreign government, offshore jurisdictions are, in most cases, immune to the laws that may apply where the investing company resides (Investopedia, 2006).Diversification of Businesses: Domestic companies have to follow local government regulations that restrict its international investment opportunities. Multinational companies have unlimited access to international markets and to all major exchanges. There are also many opportunities in developing nations, especially in those that are beginning to privatize sectors that were formerly under government control. Conclusion: Thus we find that multinational companies enjoy many advantages compared to local domestic companies.

A Focus On Research Methodology Business Essay

A Focus On Research Methodology Business Essay 3.1 Introduction: The previous chapter discussed about the existing literature of how the innovation process and product life cycle works within a company. This chapter will focus on research methodology which is the set of method, providing a systematic technique to accomplish research aims and objectives and research questions. As per Kumar (2005), research methodology is the way to answer all the research questions. The researcher will clarify the types of research methods and also it will illustrate the correct process to meet the research aims and objectives, data collection process and evaluation of the data. The centre point of any research is to data collection and the analysis. Saunders et al. (2009, p-106) described this centre point as a centre of an onion which has different layers that need to be peeled away to get into the centre point. This onion is known as a ‘research onion’, which is shown below: Figure 3.1: Research Onion Source: Saunders et al. (2009 ) 3.2 Research philosophy: According to Saunders et al. (2009) research philosophy is the term that develops the knowledge and there is a strong relation between the nature of that knowledge and the research. To support to select the research strategy method it is important to take the supposition of the research. As per Johnson and Clark (2006) stated in Saunders et al. (2009, p.108) the management and business researchers need to be aware of the philosophies that be chosen for research report. They also added the significance of the research need to understand by investigation. In addition, there is been supportive statement by Saunders et al. (2009, p.108), â€Å"The important issue is not so much whether our research should be philosophically informed, but it is how well we are able to reflect upon our philosophical choices and defend them in relation to the alternatives we could have adopted.† According to ‘research onion’ from Saunders et al. (2009, p.108), there are four main areas which cover the research philosophy. These are as follows: Pragmatism Interpretivism Realism Positivism 3.2.1 Pragmatism: In research philosophy pragmatism is the most important determination that focuses on the research question. In this part it is also possible to argue within both positivist and interpretivist view. This is also applicable for practical approach. It helps to collect and analyze data by integrating different perspectives. (Saunders et al. (2009, p.109) 3.2.2 Interpretivism: The term ‘interpretivism’ stands for, as a researcher it is required to be aware of the difference between humans in their role as social actors. According to Saunders et al. (2009, p.116), â€Å"The difference between conducting research among people rather than objects such as trucks and computers. The term ‘social actors’ is quite significant here. In the same way we interpret our everyday social roles in accordance with the meaning we gi ve to these roles. In addition, we interpret the social roles of others in accordance with our own set of meaning†. 3.2.3 Realism: Realism is another important point of research philosophy which focuses on scientific enquiry. In other word, the existence of autonomous reality of the human mind is the realism. As per Saunders et al. (2009, p.114), quoted that,

Fraud Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Fraud - Essay Example ice actions that must be commenced within three years of the act or omission giving rise to the injury, or within two years of the date discovery, to a maximum of four years following the date of the act or omission. On the other hand, medical malpractice actions for objects that are left inside the body may be commenced within one year of the date of discovery, to a maximum of ten years after the date of the act giving rise to the injury. Another example that North Carolina has is about personal injury in which negligence claims must be filled within three years of the date upon which bodily harm caused by the negligent act is or should have been apparent, whichever occurs first. However, all negligence claims must be commenced within ten years of the act giving rise to the injury, regardless of the date of discovery. Obviously If I have the right to decide, I would like to add the statutory about the medical malpractice from the North Carolina State. I think it is crucial because basically doctors are still human; mistakes might occur – human error does exist. So, that particular statutory would definitely help the citizens to obtain their rights if something unexpected happens within their medical treatments. The citizens will absolutely feel secured to have such kind of statutory. Larson, Aaron (2004). Expert Law. North Carolina Statute of Limitations for Civil and Personal Injury Actions – An Overview.Retrieved from

Compare two ethical principles (Dawn) Assignment

Compare two ethical principles (Dawn) - Assignment Example As per (University of Washington,1998) â€Å"In the course of caring for patients, there are some situations in which some type of harm seems inevitable, and we are usually morally bound to choose the lesser of the two evils, although the lesser of evils may be determined by the circumstances†. When we think about the other ethical principle, it can be detailed as beneficence where in nurses are obliged to do good for their patients and have the duty not to do any harm to them during the course of treatment .As per (Pentilat,2008) â€Å"Beneficence is action that is done for the benefit of others. Beneficent actions can be taken to help prevent or remove harms or to simply improve the situation of others†. Interestingly enough, our duty to do good for our patients can also interfere with our duty to do no harm†. The application of these principles is to protect the patient and help them lead a comfortable life. As per (Runzheimer,2013) â€Å"All healthcare providers must strive to improve their patient’s health, to do the most good for the patient in every

Casey Anthony Murder Trial Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Casey Anthony Murder Trial - Coursework Example The report, as a result, seeks to highlight a brief description of the background, charges and the ultimate trial of Casey Anthony regarding the disappearance and the subsequent death of her daughter. It also seeks to analyze the digital forensic evidence relative to the prosecution’s case. Casey Anthony told the authorities that on the dusk of June 9, 2008, after departure from her work at the Universal Studios she went to her babysitter, Zenaida Fernandez’s, home to discover that both she and her child had disappeared. Casey Anthony informed investigators that she initiated a hunt of her own but then was unable to trace her daughter (Alvarez, 2011). Caylees corpse was found six months after being declared missing, near Casey’s residence. The first computer evidence that initiated the search for Caylee Anthony was pictures of Caylee and her grandfather at a gathering. The evidence gave the exact date at which the victim was last seen, contrary to the testimony given by Casey Anthony. Contradicting information in relation to the computer forensics and Casey Anthony’s statement was the 31 day period where detectives collected photographs and videos of Cay Lee, Casey’s night club partying, AIM Logger chat and Casey Anthony’s Cupid profile. According to Casey, Cay Lee was the frequent user of the internet and not herself. According  to  further examination of the family computer, the Encase timeline function indicates the MAC times for the database itself and not individual records. As a result, as the user accesses the internet, the index file does not update the time that it is operational. A vital discovery was an AIM Logger chat that did not concern Cay Lee, Massive activity on MySpace, that goes on the entire day from 0800hrs with just an hour of the lunchtime break. The activity resumes again at 1330hrs, but according to Casey’s father, Casey

Monastic Buddhism in South East Asia Research Paper

Monastic Buddhism in South East Asia - Research Paper Example Within a modern context, Buddhism may be divided into two separate schools which are known as Theravada, also known as ‘Southern’, Buddhism and Mahayana, which is called ‘Northern’, Buddhism. Theravada is the main tradition within Sri Lanka and it is thought that this country has had the most ancient incessant history of Buddhism. (Kapstein, 1087) Mahayana, on the other hand, is the leading Buddhist tradition found in Tibet and, although the geneses of this tradition are debatable, it is a diverse and varying tradition from that of the Theravada. (Jones, 121) The Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist conventions share ordinary viewpoints such as the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path and Dependent Origination. Other similarities include similar principles such as Anicca, Dukkha, Annata, Sila, Samadhi, and Panna. In addition to this, the two traditions also share a rejection of the notion of a supreme creator. However, Theravada and Mahayana differ on some impor tant aspects such as the final goal of practice and their perspective on the notion of Buddha-nature as well as other doctrinal differences. There are neither rites of passage nor a special ceremony in becoming Buddhist. There is a long process of disciplinary training and education given to those seeking to become a monk (Bhikkhu). Anyone seeking to become a Bhikkhu is known as a novice. ... ly and no other monks has any objection to the given answers, this person is acknowledged into the Sangha, the monk community, and in this way, their training commences. Southeast Asian Countries and Monastic Education According to historical findings, Thaton was an operational port of call on the course between India and other prominent countries of southeastern Asia. From religious perspective, missionaries happened to come regularly from the eminent mission training centers of Conjeeveram and Amaravati and proceeded on from there to Cambodia, Thailand, and Java. At that time, though, these missionaries were Theravada Buddhists and the region around Thaton remained Theravada, it should be kept in mind that side by side with the stretch of Theravada, there was also a tough Mahayana movement from China, Malaya, Cambodia, and northern India. When King Anawrahta controlled to the throne in Pagan in northern Myanmar, he was not happy with the religious practice of his people, which was a weird combination of Tantrism, Mahayana, and Hinduism. So, when he held meeting the Arahat Shin Arahan and came to know about the simple yet reflective teaching of the Theravada, he was instantly converted and requested the Arahat to stay at Pagan for the establishment of the Dhamma. At Arahan's suggestion, King Anawrahta asked the king of Thaton for some relics and copies of the Tipitaka, and when he was refused, he attacked and occupied Thaton and brought to Pagan all the relics and copies of the Tipitaka as well as a large number of monks to sermonize the Dhamma. He ruled over most of Myanmar, established communications with the Buddhists of Ceylon, and started a great building program at Pagan which continued for two centuries until the country was overrun by the armies of Kublai

Cruel and Unusual Punishment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cruel and Unusual Punishment - Essay Example Despite widespread outcry on the cruelty associated with the death penalty, many countries around the globes still practice it and view it as a perfectly legal form of extreme punishment. Whether to uphold or abolish the death penalty has been a controversial subject in many societies, in the world. This is because of the divergent views that different people have based on phenomenon such as culture, political ideology and religion. The United Nations, for example, has in recent times adopted resolutions though non binding, advocating for the abolishment of executions giving emphasis on the sanctity of life. The European Union also outlaws the practice of capital punishment in its area of jurisdiction through the second article of the European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights. This has proved to be ineffective since countries like the Unites States, Indonesia, India and China, which hold a large part of the global population, still practice capital punishment (Mandery 45). Accordi ng to Amnesty International, two nations each year have abolished capital punishment in their criminal justice systems since 1976. Counties such as Germany, Australia and Spain strongly against the practice of capital punishment regardless of the crime committed. Capital punishment dates as far back as 8th Century B.C in Babylon, where twenty five different crimes were punishable by death. The Hittite code of the 14th Century B.C also embraced capital punishment. Most astonishing of them all was the draconian Athens code of the 7th Century B.C, which set out death as punishment for all crimes. In early civilizations, the death penalty got executed thorough drowning, firing squads, impalement, lynching, decapitation and crucifixion. In present day, capital punishment gets executed through the use of lethal injection, firing squads, lethal gas, hanging and electrocution (Radelet 46). The death penalty in the Unites States has been an issue of insurmountable concern for a long time. Th e precedence of capital punishment in Americas came as a result of British influence on the then colony. Though capital punishment had been occurring, the first recorded execution took place in Virginia in 1608. The early 20th Century marked the resurgence in the execution of the death penalty. The 1930s marked the decade with the largest number of executions in the history of America. In the 1950s, the public began to voice their opposition to capital punishment. This led to a drop in the number of executions. In the 1960s, the legality of capital punishment got challenged. Before 1960, the eighth, fifth and fourteen amendments were interpreted as having endorsed the death penalty. It was later suggested that the death penalty was unusual and cruel, and hence unconstitutional in accordance to the Eighth Amendment (Mandery 77). In 1985, the Supreme Court ruled that the 8th Amendment had an evolving standard of decency which marked progress of a society that was coming of age. This n ewly found decency no longer had room for the death penalty. As a result, the Supreme Court began refining the administration of the death penalty by ensuring that it was practiced with little or no pain inflicted. Whereas the 8th Amendment of the Constitution of the United States restrains the government from cruel and unusual punishments, the ambiguity of the term ‘cruel and unusual’ has over the years fuelled the controversy about the constitutionality of capital p

Occupy Wall Street Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Occupy Wall Street - Essay Example The movement instigated on September 17, 2011, in Zuccotti Park of New York City's Wall Street financial district. The chief architect of the protest was Canadian activist group Adbusters, and has escorted to connect protests and actions across the planet (Intellectual Roots of Wall St. Protest Lie in Academe: Movement's principles arise from scholarship on anarchy). Occupy Wall Street emphasizes direct action and they have their slogan "We are the 99%". Indicating that the authorities are supporting 1% of the population, proportion attributed to the privileged and prosperous population. Highlighting the fact that income is unequally distributed between the affluent class which is 1% and the enduring 99% of the population (Intellectual Roots of Wall St. Protest Lie in Academe: Movement's principles arise from scholarship on anarchy). History Tracing the history of the Occupy Wall Street (OWS), it could be established that the roots lie in the 2010, British student protests together w ith the anti-austerity protest of Greece and Spain as well as Arab Spring protest (Reuters). In June 2011, an electronic conversation took place between Lasen and White. Lasen was the founder of Canadian-based Adbusters Media Foundation while, White was the senior editor of Adbuster (Pre-occupied). Later a website called OccupyWallStreet.org was registered by Lasen in June 2011. The subscribers of Adbusters were sent an electronic message with the note "America needs it own Tahrir". The message busted like a wild fire and people showed spontaneity. Adbusters suggested September, 17 as the date for the initiation of the protest as it corresponds with the America's Constitution Day (Fleming, 2011). The idea spread like a conflagration and social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter and Blogs played the pivotal role in generating the awareness and inciting individuals to understand their rights as "leaderless resistance movement" (Fleming, 2011). The movement was joined and pulle d by various independent activists who possess their systematized websites, to convey messages for meetings. The protest gathered a huge crowd and therefore was intervened by the police which provided Occupy Wall Street new wings to spread the message. Video clips and footage played a crucial role in generating public awareness. A NYPD officers video highlighting the arrest of protesters spread like a pandemic on Internet especially the one displaying officers shooting pepper spray on the faces of people especially women. The movement emerged as a people's democracy movement. Every effort to clear out the non-violent protest has further popularized the movement and people are participating to a greater extent with more zeal and enthusiasm. With every huge gatherings things tend to change and further strengthen the movement, highlighting the fact that the 99% of the population is really suffering a lot due to the prevailing corruption and greed for money in every sector of human exis tence (Fleming, 2011). People are now aware of the fact that Occupy Wall Street is people's voice and one must promote it, strengthen it and have to contribute for the betterment of the their rights and to eliminate disparity and

General insurance Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

General insurance - Assignment Example Following are the three ways to deal with insurable risks 1. Personal factors of the driver such as age, gender, marital status is considered before deciding the premium. Young people who have had driver’s training are considered less risk and hence given a lower premium. Similarly people who have had no accidents while driving are also considered less risk. Thus the personal characteristics are considered while calculating the premium. 2. Type of car is also an important factor while calculating the premium because of the variation in the repair cost. A powerful car will have increased liability and higher accident benefits premiums. 3. Use of car is another important factor in determining the premium. If more than one person drives the car and car is driven for long kilometers can also affect the risk. Similarly car used for home purpose has different premium than a car used for business purpose. Answer: A  personal property floater is a policy that has taken into consideration  all of the  insureds  property  in any location, and irrespective of where the insured is at the time of  loss. This is an all  perils  coverage  that  doesn’t provide coverage for certain events, such as war

Employment Contract Essay Example for Free

Employment Contract Essay Employment Contract This Employment Agreement is made effective as of June 26th, 2013 and is between Joshua James, Frederick Alan, and Dave Darwin of the Builders Licensing and Training Institute in Grand Rapids, Michigan (referred to as â€Å"the company†) and John Andrews (referred to as â€Å"the employee†). The terms of this AT-WILL Employment Contract are set forth below. Employment. The Company shall employ John Andrews as a building instructor. This employee shall provide to the Company the following services: John Andrews accepts and agrees to such employment, and agrees to be subject to the general supervision, advice, and direction of the owners of the Company. The employee should perform duties that are customarily performed by an employee in this position. The Company shall employ John Andrews at least forty hours a week including holidays. Also, the employee may be required to work weekends and some mandatory overtime every pay period. Best Efforts of Employment. The employee John Andrews agrees to perform to the best of his ability, experience, and talents to perform the duties that may be set forth or expressed by the Company including the implicit terms of this agreement. Ownership of Social Media. Any social media that is used by the employee while under Company time is property of the Company. This includes but is not limited to contacts acquired through the Company examples like addresses, blogs, Twitter, Facebook, Youtube, Linked In, and other social media. Compensation of Employee. As compensation for the services provided by John Andrews under this agreement, the Company will pay John Andrews an annual salary of $50,000 in accordance with the Company’s usual payroll procedures, not including overtime pay which will be based upon the usual hourly rate for such employment. Upon termination of this agreement, payment shall cease, however, John Andrews shall be compensated for periods or partial periods  that occurred prior to the date of termination. Confidentiality After Termination of Employment. The confidentiality of this agreement and information of the company are special and unique assets and need to be protected from improper disclosure. In consideration of this, John Andrews agrees that for a period of two years following termination or removal from the company whether voluntary or involuntary will not directly or indirectly engage in any business competition with the Builders Licensing and Training Insitute. Employee Name ______________________________ Date _________________ Employee Signature _______________________________ Date _________________

The Front Desk Essay Example for Free

The Front Desk Essay The front office department is the most visible department in a hotel. The focal point of activity within the front office is the reception desk. The reception desk is usually the place at which the guests form their first impressions of the hotel. It is also the communication center for the hotel’s operation (Baker, S, Huyton, J and Bradley, P, 2000, p. 22). The reception/ front desk: The reception desk may comprise: Cashiering; mail and information; registration; and room assignment. The reception desk is located in the busiest area of the hotel’s lobby. The main financial tasks which are handled by front office staff include: receiving cash payments, handling guest folios, verifying cheques, and handling foreign currency and credit cards (Baker, S, Huyton, J and Bradley, P, 2000, p. 22). The front desk is controlled by the front desk manager. It is the duty of the manager to make sure that a hotel achieves the maximum revenue and the highest level of room occupancy possible. It is also the responsibility of the front desk manager to monitor and motivate the staff as well as to maintain a high profile with the guests. This helps to ensure that a quality service is being given by the front office departments in particular and the hotel in general (Baker, S, Huyton, J and Bradley, P, 2000, p. 52). The specific responsibility of the reception supervisor is to guarantee the smooth running of the front desk. Apart from this overall duty, they would organize duty rotas, and handles complaints or difficult customers which a receptionist may not be able to deal with. The notification and greeting of important guests would also be the duty of the front desk supervisor (Baker, S, Huyton, J and Bradley, P, 2000, p. 52). The senior receptionists are in charge of each shift of staff. The senior receptionists are in charge of each shift of staff. The senior receptionist will take responsibility of assigning rooms to guests, dealing with group arrivals and handling guests’ immediate problems or queries (Baker, S, Huyton, J and Bradley, P, 2000, p. 52). During a hotel stay, guests may require certain services from, and engage in various transactions with a hotel. These are mostly handled by the front office. It is important to note that each section of the front office has an area of task responsibility (Baker, S, Huyton, J and Bradley, P, 2000, p. 0). The main roles of receptionists (or front desk agents) are involved in taking enquiries and reservation requests from hotel guests; preparing for the arrival of guests; greeting guests on their arrival; checking guests in (registering them, allocating suitable rooms and checking methods of payment); selling the facilities and services of the hotel; responding to guest problems and queries, or referring them to other departments that can do so; providing information about guests to other front office units and departments of the hotel; and maintaining guest records. He customarily answers phone inquiries, greets guests as they arrive to check in, and assigns rooms. When guests depart, the agent is typically the person who settles their accounts before they leave (BPP learning media, 2010). In addition to handling arrivals and departures, the agent is customarily in charge of general front desk guest relations. He traditionally controls the guest room keys and keeps track of how many keys have been released for each customer. Handling and distributing guest mail and messages are customarily the responsibility of the front desk agent (BPP learning media, 2010). Front desk supervisors typically serve as the face of a hotel. They provide customers with a first and last impression as both greeters of new guests and well-wishers to departing ones. Front Desk Supervisor These hotel employees oversee that guests are welcomed, registered into a hotels computer system and assigned an appropriate room or suite. They also perform or delegate various tasks, such as making or confirming reservations, verifying and collecting guests payments, issuing room keys and contacting housekeeping or maintenance when guests report a problem. Front desk supervisors must be resourceful, take ownership of problems and issues that arise and have excellent problem-solving skills. In addition to managing the daily operations of the front desk, these supervisors provide hotel clerks with necessary training and support. They maintain all essential front desk equipment and supplies, as well as controlling guests access to safe deposit boxes. Other responsibilities might include tracking and posting appropriate food, liquor or telephone charges to guests accounts; completing bookkeeping duties, like balancing accounts and conducting nightly financial audits; and recording and referring patron comments and complaints to the appropriate hotel manager. Hotel front desk supervisors must be friendly and outgoing and possess excellent communication skills. Perhaps the most important guest service function that can be provided by a front desk agent is that of properly registering guests. This is a five-step process of registration of a hotel guest which is stated by (Hayes, D. K. and Ninemeier, J. D. , 2007) consists of: 1. Greeting the guest: When the guest arrives at the front desk, a professionally dressed, well-trained staff member should greet them in a friendly way. Because most hotel guests arrive in the evening and check-in time can be very busy, it may not always be possible to avoid guests having to wait in line for registration. Proper staffing, however, should minimize the wait. When it is their turn to be registered, guests should, above all else, be made to feel welcome! 2.  Confirming the information on the registration card. This includes the spelling of the guests name, their arrival date, departure date, and room rate, and any other information related to that specific guest. Since the registration card will serve as the record of the guests stay, it must be complete and precise. In addition, misunderstandings regarding room rate can be minimized if the room rate is clearly communicated and understood by both the hotel and the guest prior to room assignment. It is critical that all information on the registration card be accurate and complete. 3. Securing a form of payment.  In most hotels, guests must either pay for their room in advance or provide a valid alternative source of credit at registration. While many hotels accept checks, the most prevalent source of credit provided by guests is that of a credit or debit card. These cards must be legitimate, however, before they represent an acceptable form of payment. To establish the cards legitimacy, the desk agent should authorize the card at the time of guest registration. 4. Room assignment. Once a guests registration information has been confirmed and an acceptable form of payment has been offered, the guest should be assigned to a specific guest oom. In some hotels, all guest rooms are identical, and room assignment is of little consequence. In other hotels, the room types may vary greatly in perceived quality and/or rate based primarily on the rooms location, view, bed type, amenities 5. Issuance of keys. The final step in the registration process is the issuance of their room keys. The actual number of keys to be issued is a matter of hotel policy and guest preference. It is important, however, that the issuance of guest room keys be tightly controlled because the theft, loss, or unauthorized duplication of keys could seriously threaten guest safety. Upon receiving room keys, the guest would be taken or directed to their room. ?A reservation in the context of the front office of a hotel means the booking or reserving of a bedroom (accommodation) by a guest, and involves a particular type of guest room being reserved for a particular person or persons, for a certain period of time. When a reservation or room booking is made at a hotel, it is expected that the hotel will honor its commitment in accepting that reservation and guarantee that a room will be available when a guest arrives (Baker, S, Huyton, J and Bradley, P, 2000, p. 63). A contract of booking is an agreement which is entered into every time a reservations clerk offers a prospective guest a room and that guest accepts the room however, the guest must be informed of all relevant details relating to the booking, for example, the type of room, the cost, dates, VAT and service charges involved (Baker, S, Huyton, J and Bradley, P, 2000, p. 63. This contract of booking means that: * The hotel ensures there will be a room as a specified, available for the guest upon their arrival. * The guest will arrive to use the room which they have booked, on the specified day. The reservation process is of vital importance to a hotel because it gives the first impression of the hotel to guests, sells the main product of a hotel, i. e. accommodations, generates customers for other departments, and provides important management information to other departments. The reservation process is often the first contact between the guest and a hotel. It is, therefore, essential for the reservations clerk to provide prompt and accurate service in order to present a good first impression to the guest. In the hotel industry, strong competition exists for the selling of accommodation; a guest who experiences problems or slow service from the reservations section will think carefully before confirming a reservation or returning to that hotel. An efficient reservations system is, therefore, very important (Baker, S, Huyton, J and Bradley, P, 2000, p. 64). The reservations department sells accommodation and helps to generate income for other departments of a hotel, for example, the food and beverage department. Hotel rooms are a saleable commodity and are strictly limited by factor of time and quantity. Therefore, if a room is not sold on a particular night, the revenue from that room is lost forever. Reservations contribute to the three main objectives of a front office department, i. e. , to maximize rooms, beds and average room rate, thereby achieving the highest possible revenue and profitability for the hotel. In additions, other departments often benefit from the reservations department. Such details may include an accurate estimate of the number of guests staying in the hotel (Baker, S, Huyton, J and Bradley, P, 2000, p. 64). Front Desk and Guest Privacy  Once a guest has been registered for a room, the courts have ruled that these guests enjoy many of the same constitutional rights in the room as they would in their own home. It is not simply the legal thing to do, but it is the proper thing as well, to protect the rights of guests to privacy (Hayes, D. K. and Ninemeier, J. D. , 2007).? A professionally managed front office is one in which guests are confident that their privacy is maintained by all staff members. This includes maintaining a guests anonymity. Hayes, D. K. and Ninemeier, J.  D (2007) states that in order to maintain a guest’s anonymity, a front Desk agent should: Never confirm or deny that a guest is in fact registered in the hotel without the guests express permission Never give out information related to a guests stay (arrival, departure, rate, etc. ) to any third party without that guests express permission Always be vigilant in informing the guest of any unusual third-party information requests regarding their stay Just as guests expect their own privacy to be maintained, they should also feel confident that information regarding their actual room is kept confidential. This is both a safety and a privacy issue. To that end, front desk agents should: Never give out a guests room number to any third party without that guests express permission Never perform registration tasks in such a way as to allow guest room information to he overheard by others in the front office area Never issue a duplicate room key to anyone without confirming the positive identification of that person as the rooms properly registered guest Concerning the financial aspect of the hotel, accounting for guests, while less visible than providing guest services, is another critical responsibility of the front office. Accounting for guests simply means that all charges incurred by a guests use of the hotel are charged for properly. Depending on the services and amenities offered by the hotel, the source of guest charges can be numerous. The following product and services list is not inclusive, but does represent some of the many possible guest charges that must be accurately collected and posted to the guests folio. Bucket Check: A procedure used to verify, for each guest, the accuracy of that guest’s registration information. When performing the bucket check, the desk agent physically verifies that the information on the guests registration card is complete and matches that in the PMS (Hayes, D. K. and Ninemeier, J. D. , 2007). When an appropriate bucket check is performed at each shift, the number of errors related to billing guests folios is greatly reduced. Errors in recording the information related to a guests stay make the hotels accounting records inaccurate. In addition, room rate adjustments made at checkout are both annoying and time consuming to guests. The bucket is the industry term for the location of the actual registration cards signed by guests at check-in. The bucket check is simply a manual procedure for assuring the accuracy of information related to the guests actual room assignment, rate to be paid, departure date, form of payment, and any other accounting-related information (Hayes, D. K. and Ninemeier, J. D. , 2007). The front desk should be able to produce independent supporting documentation for each charge posted to a guests folio. The front desk agent responsible for checking the guest out may need to produce some documentation of the charge. In this case, the documentation would likely be the actual room service ticket signed by the guest when the wine was delivered. It is the responsibility of each shift of the front desk to ensure that all appropriate guest charges incurred are posted to the appropriate guests folio and that the documentation supporting such charges has been thoroughly reviewed prior to posting. The night auditor depends on appropriate documentation provided by each shift of the front desk to support the charges that will be finalized and posted to the guests folio during the night audit (Hayes, D. K. and Ninemeier, J. D. , 2007). One of the most challenging aspects of providing guest service at the front desk relates to ensuring that guests are satisfied during their stay. When guests experience difficulties in the hotel, they will most likely turn to the front desk and its staff for assistance. There are a variety of reasons guest may have special needs or experience dissatisfaction during their stay. During their stay, and at time of checkout, guests are likely to bring up any issues they find that detracted from their experience. Routine items such as requesting room repairs, additional room amenities, or information can, if handled professionally, actually enhance the guests experience (Chon, K. S. and Maier, T. A. 2008). The making of guest reservations is often the first thing that comes to mind when considering the major functions of a front office, and this is indeed an important and often complex aspect of the front offices role. In addition to reservations, however, it falls upon the front office to actually assign arriving guests to specific guest rooms and respond to their special needs during their stay. These needs can include anything from transportation and information to medical assistance. In all of these situations and more, the major role of the front office is to make the guests stay as comfortable and as welcoming as possible.

Project failure in the software industry

Project failure in the software industry Introduction: Project failure is a common thing heard in the Software Industry in recent years. It has been observed that almost 50% of the projects in the Industry fail due to many various reasons. Research shows that Project failure is not due to one particular reason but many reasons contributing to it. The Standish Group [1995], found in their survey that of all the projects only 1/6 of the projects were completed on time and within the specified budget. They also found that 1/3 of the projects were cancelled and more than  ½ of them were considered challenged. In these cancelled and challenged projects about 189% were over budget, 222% were behind schedule and only 61% of the requirements were met. Factors contributing to project success are to complete it on time, should be under budget and should meet the requirements completely, but generally these dont meet the expectations which results in project failures. The most common reasons for project failures are lack of user involvement, unre alistic time scale, poorly defined requirements, poor testing, miscommunication and difference of opinion between team members, etc. Since now most of the companies use software for various operations, it is a must for every company to avoid project failures. A huge amount of money is spent on making software, therefore it is important to analyze and understand the reasons behind the various reasons behind project failures. The graph below shows various reasons for failure and the percentage to which each factor contributes. The above graph and the percentage of failures show that it is normal for a software project to fail due to various reasons. But the point is what we can do to avoid it. For that we need to understand the various reasons for failure and the steps to avoid them. Reasons for Project Failures: Vague Requirements: Requirement gathering is the first step of any project development life cycle. Any project starts with the understanding and analyzing the requirements of the customer. Often the requirements are not clearly specified and the manager assumes the requirements as per his/her understanding and asks the developers to start developing the product which results in not meeting the exact requirements of the stakeholder. Many times the customer, himself/herself is not aware of what they want as keep changing the requirements on regular time intervals which results in delay of product delivery, increased cost and inefficient product. Many times due to time constraint the developers start the project assuming requirements and start developing it, thinking that the requirements will be fulfilled once we start developing which may result in incomplete project and increase in cost or even delay in completion of project. Hence it is very important to understand the requirements of the customer and make a proper software requirement document and then start the project development. Consequences: The result of vague requirements is severe. This will cause an increase in cost, inefficient product and a lot of rework. The developers will have to spend a lot of time and put in extra hours of work to make the necessary changes as the product developed is not as expected. Suggestion: To avoid this situation of vague requirements which may lead to project failure, I suggest that the project manager should meet the customer to get the exact requirements of the project. The Manager should make sure that all the requirements are properly documented so that the developers know the exact requirements which will help them to know what the goals to achieve are. The Manager should also regularly meet the developers and make sure that all the requirements are clear as they come and everyone has understood the requirements document. The requirement analyses and developing a project development life cycle should be given enough time before the actual development starts. Unrealistic Time Scale: Poor schedule estimation is another reasons for project failure. Many project managers understand the need to deliver the projects fast due to which they set unrealistic schedule to make sure the project is produced quickly without knowing the amount of work that needs to be done. Due to which they make superficial design and start coding to make the product as quickly as possible thinking that sooner the coding starts, faster the product is finished. Many times the managers are also pressurized by the stakeholders regarding the project deadlines. The Project Managers many times dont even work together with the stakeholders in defining a realistic schedule and decide on a proper deadline for the completion of the project. But this is the most common mistake made by the project managers. As a result of this unrealistic time scale the final product is either faulty or does not meet the user requirements or delay in delivery of project resulting in increase of the product development co st. Consequences: The result of unrealistic time scale is increase in cost and time to deliver. Since the schedule is unrealistic the manager will make a working model and ask the programmers to start coding quickly, which will result in low quality of work by the coders as they are under great pressure and the final product delivered will not meet the expectations of the stakeholder. This will cause the project to fail and cause waste of resources and money put in the project. Suggestion: Since unrealistic time scale being a common mistake made by the project manager, it can lead to heavy losses. This mistake should be taken care of by making a proper project plan and setting realistic deadlines. This plan and deadlines should be decided based on the amount of work to be done and the size of the team working on the project so as to avoid unnecessary pressure on the team. This will give enough time to work on each and every module properly and fulfill all the requirements properly rather than just complete the project within the given time. More importantly the stakeholders should be provided all the required data and estimated time of completion. They should also be updated at regular intervals to make sure that the work in on the estimated time. Poor Communication: Poor Communication is the third reason for project failure. Due to poor communication between the managers and developers, the developers are not aware of the work to be done by them, which may result in delay. As this important information is not shared between team members, the progress of the project is also not known. Trying to avoid communication between team members to avoid conflicting views between them may result in project failure. Sometimes the programmers are not allowed to give their opinion about the improvement of the project which is also a reason for project failure. This kind of poor communication between the manager and the team members hinders the progress of the project. This kind of poor communication should be avoided and the manager should take the necessary steps to overcome this problem for the success of the project. Consequences: The impact of this reason for project failure is very severe. It will affect the cost of development, affect the schedule and functionality. If the communication is poor it may lead to inefficient product development. Suggestion: Communication is very important between the team members, the management and the stakeholders for the project success. Since poor communication can lead to severe losses to a project I would suggest that manager should regularly communicate with the team regarding the project progress. This will help the manager to keep a track on the ongoing progress and also make sure that the team has understood all the requirements properly and avoid conflicting views between the members. And all the members will know their role in the project thus avoiding unnecessary work. Communication with the stakeholder will also help the stakeholder to know about the progress of the project and to know if the project is going as per the requirements. Scope Creep: Scope Creep gives the overall view of the final system to be delivered. Scope creep happens due to increase in the scope of the project during development. Often it is seen that the manager or the customer wants to add more functionality to the system while it is being developed. Like if a student record system is developed for the subjects taken and scores of the students by semester. But then the customer wants to add personal details and fees structure for each course. This will increase the scope of the system as the new functionality is required to be added along with the old requirements. This will affect the schedule of the project. Many times it happens that the customer might change the requirement at regular intervals or might require change as they are not comfortable with the existing system resulting in scope creep. Consequence: The consequence of this is very severe. As the requirements of the system change it will increase the cost of development and even affect the project schedule. Suggestion: Scope creep should be avoided as it may lead to major project failure or unnecessary delay in the project deliverable. This can be avoided by getting all the requirements from the user at the start of the project and even the priority in which the requirements need to be fulfilled. The cost and the time of delivery should be documented as per the present requirements. So any change will affect the cost and time should be told to the customer and everything should be documented. Inappropriate Staffing: Inappropriate staffing is another reason for project failure. The manager needs to find the right people for the job. Many times there are programmers who lack the required experience in the technology and are not qualified enough for that job. It also happens that the managers hired or allocated to a project dont have enough experience in handling such a huge task or dont have enough technical knowledge. These programmers and managers are hired simply to keep the cost of development low. So it is very important to get the right set of people to work on the project, who are experienced enough and can work well in a team for project to be successful. Many times it may happen that a member of the team or a high level manager might leave the job, which may affect the project schedule. Many times it happens that resources are not allocated properly while shows inefficiency in work, thus delaying the project schedule. This problem has been a major problem with all the companies. Consequences: This will have an impact on the project schedule as every time new resources are allocated, it will consume time to understand and complete task. Suggestion: To overcome the problem of inappropriate staffing the management must hire the right set of people for the required task who are efficient enough for the job. They must have a well balanced team and people who work well as a team and appreciate each other to achieve the bigger goal of successful project completion. Lack of User Involvement: User involvement is very important for any project to succeed. If the user is not involved in the project development by continuously communicating with the project manager, it may result in a project failure. Many times it happens that the user doesnt know how to use the system as the user is not much involved in the working of the system. The developers get the requirements from the user but the users are not actively participating in the design phase, requirement analysis phase, testing phase or the users are changing the requirements which may lead to delay in the project schedule and might not meet all the user requirements. Many times it is seen that the user will specify the requirements and then wait for the final product. Due to this the users sometimes dont get the expected functionality or they might not be familiar with the system which may result in a lot of time wasted in learning the system. Consequence: The consequence of this is medium effect. There can be a lot of change in the functionality as the user is not aware of the system working till the end. It may also increase the cost of the project and schedule as the user will take a lot of time to get familiar with the system. Suggestion: To overcome this problem of lack of user involvement, the user should actively participate in all the phases of project development. The user should be eager to learn the system before it is put live and hence should be trained to use the system. This will help the user to get familiar with the system and will also be able to test the system for all the features that are expected of the system. Poor Planning: Planning is the most important part of any project. If the project is well planned it will be completed on time and within schedule, resulting in success with all the requirements full filled. Project plan defines the objectives of the project and the goals to be achieved. The project plan contains the amount of resources required, the cost of development and the deliverable schedule. It helps in knowing what is to be done and what resources are required in which area of the project. Sometimes it is seen that the manager doesnt have much time to make a project plan due to time constrain from the senior management due to which implementation starts before the project plan is completed. This will hinder the project schedule as the flow of project development will not be clear. Many times it happens that project activities are dependent upon the previous activities completion but in case of poor planning this will get affected. This will result in the increase in the project development cost and increase the deliverable schedule. Consequences: The effect of poor planning is very severe. It will have an impact on the project development cost, incomplete requirements and will also affect the schedule. Suggestion: To avoid the problem of poor planning, the management should make sure that the project is well planned with all the resources, phases of development, cost estimation and the schedule of delivery before the implementation starts. Then at regular intervals it should be check if everything is going as planned, so that any kind of problem can be taken care of right away before its too late. Poor Testing: Poor testing plays an important role in project being a failure. Developers do test the project after the coding is done but it is the duty of the user to do an acceptance test to know if the system meets the requirements. But sometimes this testing fails as the requirements are poor enough to be tested. The user is unaware of the importance of this testing. It also happens that the user is not trained enough to test the system resulting in a poor test. Many times it is seen that the development phase takes so long that there is no time for testing, due to which it is avoided. So the user should be encouraged to do the acceptance testing so that the user is comfortable with the developed system. Consequences: The result of poor testing is that not very heavy. If the testing fails, then the development team will have to do a lot of rework on the failed areas. This will increase the cost and delay in project deliverable time. Suggestion: To make sure that testing is done properly the project should be well designed and planned. If the project is to be delivered in modules, then every module should be tested which is very useful as all the functionality is checked at the end of each module. This help in avoiding the entire system test at the end of the project, since most of the modules are tested as they were completed. Then the user should be trained to use the system so that they can do a proper test of the system. This can help in overcoming the problem of poor testing. View Point: The analyses shown above are based on my research about various reasons for project failure and their consequences. From my research on the above I analyzed and suggested that all of the above reasons are important and should be taken in to consideration during the life of project development as they have equal effect on success of a project or its failure. I think that most projects fail due to vague requirements, poor planning and inappropriate staffing. Making sure that all the requirements are properly gathered is the first step in any project development process. If the requirements are not properly gathered then it may lead to problems down the line during development. I have observed that many times due to time constraint or not clear requirements the development phase is started considering that once a working model is ready then all the left out requirements can be handled but this is the biggest mistake made as it will require a lot of rework and increase the cost of development. Many times vague requirements force the developers to make a functionality that is actually not required thus wasting of time and resources results in a lot of rework. Poor planning is also a factor for project failures. Due to vague requirements the planning done is also poor resulting in project failure. Planning phase comes after requirements gathering phase. In this phase all the details about the project development, the resources required, the cost of development, the time schedule of deliverable project parts or whole are decided. This phase takes a good amount of time as the whole project development is planned in this phase, so if the planning is poor, it may lead the project down the hill instead of up. So during the planning phase all the aspects of development should be taken into consideration by the developers and managers. Another problem which is faced by most of the companies is of inappropriate staffing. A project team should have the right combination of people. People, who are experienced, can work well in a team. Generally managers try to cut the cost of development by hiring people who are less experienced with the kind of project to be developed and even inexperience in using the technology being used. This will affect the project schedule. Many times it happens that a manager or team member leaves the project due to work pressure as they are kept to do parts in many projects. Due to this the project is delayed and a lot of time is lost in training the new member. So managers should chose the right people for the team and also the members should be dedicated to a particular project. Many times I have seen that there are dependencies between teams during a project development. Like now a days there is outsourcing where in the design and testing is done by one team and the coding is sent to another team. So whenever there is a change in the functionality or the design the coding team seating elsewhere are given the changes resulting in a lot of rework which relatively affects the project schedule. Many times there is miscommunication between the teams working in different modules so changes in one module is not conveyed to the other resulting in errors during the testing phase. So there should be proper communication between teams and regular updates should be given to all the teams working on the project to avoid any error at later stage of the project. And other than these all the other factors should be taken into consideration by the management for a successful project. Lessons Learnt: From my research on project failures I learnt that project management is the most important aspect for any projects success. From research on this topic I learnt that over the years this problem has haunted the software industry but still the management has not learnt from the previous mistakes. All the reasons shown above are very critical and can lead to project failure if not handled with care. Manager must also focus on the team development for any project as it the overall team effort that makes the project successful and not an individual. Conclusion: The research gives an insight into various reasons of software project failure. These reasons have been experienced by every manager in the industry and so now companies have started focusing on proper management of the projects. References: http://www.coleyconsulting.co.uk/failure.htm http://ezinearticles.com/?Causes-Of-Software-Project-Failureid=453814 http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/rational/library/feb06/marasco/ http://www.docstoc.com/docs/24462435/Why-Projects-Fail-Graph http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/why-software-projects-fail.html http://www.projectperfect.com.au/info_it_projects_fail.php http://ezinearticles.com/?Causes-Of-Software-Project-Failureid=453814 http://74.125.155.132/search?q=cache:rpsupt-SPl0J:www.tier1performance.com/content/features/mets_files/MajorCausesofSoftwareProjectFailures.pdf+reasons+for+software+project+failurecd=3hl=enct=clnkgl=us http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/71209/Why_Projects_Fail http://knapton.blogspot.com/2007/05/why-do-software-projects-fail.html http://www.adaptivepartners.com/projfailb.htm http://portal.acm.org.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/citation.cfm?id=1370099.1370100coll=portaldl=ACMCFID=12421101CFTOKEN=86551462

Essay --

Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States was born on February 12th, 1809. Lincoln is one of the most famous presidents because of his leadership during a dire time in American history, the civil war. His presidency was served from March 1861 until the day he was assassinated in April 1865. Lincolns most prestige’s accomplishments include abolishing slavery, preserving the union and modernizing the economy. Abraham was the second child of Thomas and Nancy; he was born in a small log cabin on a farm in Kentucky. During his early life his family moved from Kentucky to Indiana in order to get out of slave territory. When Lincoln was nine his mother Nancy died of milk sickness, his father Thomas later remarried a widow named Sarah. Lincoln became very close to his new stepmother. He did not have much formal education but was a motivated self-educator. At age 22 Lincoln decided to leave home, he found a job taking goods by flatboat from New Salem to New Orleans. Once Lincoln arrived in New Orleans he witnessed a slave trade, this left a lasting impression on him. Abraham was brought up with the values of honesty and fairness; he carried these virtues throughout his life. Politics became part of Lincoln’s life in 1832 when he campaigned to be on the Illinois General Assembly. He was a member of the Whig Party. Lincoln was a captain of the Illinois Militia during the Black Hawk War, he never did see combat though. Later in his life Lincoln failed at some small business ventures. In 1837 he taught himself law and was accepted to the Illinois Bar, later that year Lincoln moved to Springfield became one of the most respected lawyers. In 1837 Lincoln made his first protest against slavery. On November 4, 1842, at the a... ... musical comedy in Lincolns state box on the balcony when Booth crept up behind Lincoln and shot Lincoln in the head at point blank range. Lincoln was mortally wounded and pronounced dead the next morning at 7:22 a.m. Lincolns attacker Booth jumped from the theater balcony breaking his leg, but was able to reach his horse and escape. Booth was on the run for 12 days before he was captured and shot. Lincolns legacy and accomplishments still live on today. Lincoln is remembered by most as a self-made man with good character. Lincoln guided are nation through one its craziest times and preserved the union. Lincoln is honored in many ways today from statues to his name being used in a wide variety of things. Lincoln’s remains were then transported to Springfield, Illinois by train. Many funerals were held as the train stopped at many cities in the North.

The School of Athens and Raphael’s Portrayal of: Diogenes, Heraclitus,

Raphael was born on April 6, 1483 in Urbino in the Marche region. In 1491 when Raphael was eight, his mother died. Bette Talvacchia, author of Raphael cites that not much is known about Raphael’s personal life because he kept to himself about many things, but many historians believe that his personal life is portrayed through his paintings (8). Richard Cocke, author of The Complete Paintings of Raphael states that at the age of seventeen Raphael began to gain popularity as an artist and was, at that time, first commissioned as an artist (Cocke 83). Raphael was known for his historical paintings, such as The School of Athens, the way he painted the nude, and his amazing ability to make colors look vivid using oil paint (Cocke 5). Historical paintings are a type of painting genera that focuses on the story line rather that one specific moment, as in a portrait. Also, when painting with oil paint, it is difficult to make colors bright, so Raphael excelled at that. One of Raphael’s styles that he used was idealization rather than realism. Richard Cocke notes that â€Å"Raphael himself wrote to his friend Castiglione in 1514 about the problem of painting a beautiful woman: â€Å"I use a certain idea, which comes into my mind.† (5) Also, many of Raphael’s self-portraits show him dressed up as an elegant man rather than an artist, leading some to believe that he did not want to be viewed as an artist (Talvacchia 8). Raphael has an amazing ability to keep his artwork well balanced and organized (Talvacchia 8). Bette Talvacchia discusses: One of Raphael’s primary contributions to painting was to perfect the unison of classicizing technique with the tenets of naturalism. When composing a figure, for example, he referred to the visual evi... ... century. It is a constant invitation to think, reflect, and grow in knowledge. Works Cited Bell, Daniel O. "New Identifications in Raphael's School of Athens." The Art Bulletin 77.4 Dec. (1995): 643. Google Scholar . Web. 24 Apr. 2012. Cocke, Richard. The Complete Paintings of Raphael. N.p.: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1966. 5-102. Print. Hall, Marcia, ed. Raphael's School of Athens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. 42. Print. Kahn, Charles H. The Art and Thought of Heraclitus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. 2. Google Scholar . Web. 17 May 2012. Matthews, Roy T., F D. Platt, and F X. Noble. The Western Humanities. 7th ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2011. 346-55. Print. Sandbach, F H. The Stoics. 2nd ed. Bedminister: The Bristol Press, 1989. 14. Print. Talvacchia, Bette. Raphael. New York: Phaidon Press Limited, 2007. 8-90. Print.

The Cyclooxygenase-2 Essay -- Health, Diseases

The cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is a key enzyme in the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins, which promote cell proliferation, angiogenesis and metastasis, and inhibit apoptosis. Unlike COX-1, which is constitutively expressed isoform, COX-2 is an inducible isoform of cyclooxygenase and which may participate in inflammatory responses and contribute to inflammation and cancersthe development of colorectal cancer as well as other human cancers (1). COX-2 is not detectable detected in most normal tissues. However, it but is rapidly induced when stimulated by in response to mitogens, cytokines and tumor promoters, which leads to the leading to increased accumulation of prostanoids in neoplastic and inflamed tissues (2). COX-2 is highly expressed at high levels in intestinal tumors in rodents and humans (1). For example, Mmore than 80% of all colorectal tumors were shown to overexpress COX-2 (3-5). Epidemiologic studies have shown that taking aspirin or other nonsteroidal anti-i nflammatory drugs on a regular basis could reduce mortality from colorectal cancer by 40-50% compared with those who not taking these drugs (1). One characteristic shared by all of these drugs is their ability to inhibit COX activity and/or expression (1). Although COX-2 is expressed in 80-90% of human colon carcinoma specimens, not all colorectal cancer cell lines constitutively expressed COX-2. Constitutive expression of COX-2 was only detected in a relatively small number of established colorectal carcinoma cell lines (6). For example, human colon adenocarcinoma cell lines, HCT116 and SW480, have been described as COX-2 negative, since they did not express COX-2, neither at mRNA nor at protein level (7). COX-2-derived prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) ... ...t as well as when the conditioned medium will be collected, with multiple parameters in which not only COX-2 mRNA and protein as well as PGE2 levels will be observed, but also other relevant molecular markers or factors like those mentioned above. Not only paradoxical observations of COX-2 expression and the functional activity in human colon cancer cell line have been documented, the role of PGE2 on inflammation seems also paradoxical. Although PGE2 is a potent mediator of inflammation (55), it was suggested that PGE2, endogenous COX products, also inhibit acute allergic inflammation (56). Thus, PGE2 may produce both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects (57). More extensive well-designed experiments are needed to help us to unveil the secret of COX-2 expression and the functional activity as well as their roles in physiological and pathophysiological conditions.

Future Of Army Aviation History Essay

Army air power is an of import combat plus for land commanding officers and it is apparent that it will go on to be in high demand into the foreseeable hereafter. From a wide position, they are charged with overarching missions of continued support for the land forces, and at the same clip position itself for the hereafter. The demands will merely go more complex in the modern battleground and we merely can non afford to retain bequest systems, processs and constructions simply because they have existed for decennaries and are familiar. However, integrating of lessons learned will emphasize beyond current capablenesss and beat up the cardinal capablenesss needed to back up land commanding officers without break or debasement to mission capableness.Pasts to Show DevelopmentsThe Gallic were the first to utilize balloons for aerial reconnaissance during conflict in 1794[ 1 ]and so by the Austrian ground forces in 1849.[ 2 ]The roots of Army Aviation can be traced back to 1861 and the fo rmation of the Civil War-era Balloon Corps which pioneered the missions of reconnaissance and heavy weapon staining. The coming of Airpower in the twentieth century revolutionised warfare and it was realised by the land forces that there were excessively many undertakings to be performed in a battleground. British Royal Air force had taken an approximate of 14,678 exposures and helped run heavy weapon on to another 9,539 marks[ 3 ]during World War I itself. Between World War I and World War II, while the Air Forces of the universe were concentrating on increasing capablenesss for what had become their primary missions – strategic bombardment, air-to-air combat and near air support[ 4 ]– the Artillery was experimenting with utilizing smaller, unworldly aircraft for accommodation of heavy weapon fire. These aircraft were flown and maintained by heavy weapon forces to make the same mission as the Balloon Corps of the Civil War.[ 5 ]They were basically light roadster aircraft which could run from short semi-prepared strips and therefore non dependent on prepared tracks. Artillery ranges were relatively limited and hence it was possible to set about heavy weapon staining and fire rectification from an aerial platform winging over enemy district. Anti- aircraft arms and air defense mechanism system were crude. Such aircraft could so of course execute communicating responsibilities and be at the disposal of field commanding officers. Fixed-wing aircraft started to alter with promotion in engineering. Artillery ranges increased and it became apparent that observation even with optical AIDSs was falling out of the scope and outlook, and so did the gait of operations where the majority of heavy weapon pieces could non fit the tally of armored formations.[ 6 ]Besides, indirect fire against conflict armored combat vehicles had proven to be uneffective. In fact, coming of low degree radio detection and ranging coverage besides narrowed the operational envelope of such aircraft. Operationalisation of the rotary wing aircraft brought in the advantage of close contact operations even in confined infinites. For the most portion, United Nations Command during the Korean War fought with World War II arms with one noteworthy exclusion. Helicopters were used non merely for battlefield observation but besides for conveyance of work forces and supplies and emptying of the hurt. There was no more abiding image of the Korean War than a chopper evacuating the hurt and set downing at Mobile Army Surgical Hospital ( MASH ) ) . In crisp contrast, the Chinese and North Korean medical emptying system about collapsed by early 1951 because they relied on route and rail which was delay- prone and immensely clip intensive.[ 7 ] Army choppers were sent to Vietnam to increase mobility and local fire, and better over the construct of keeping inactive defensive places.[ 8 ]The construct of air mobility has, of all time since, remained attractive to ground forcess ‘ universe over. Developments in guided missiles led to the combat function of ground forces from the air including the aspect of air-to-air combat. This was concurrent with supplying foot a platform to run from the 3rd dimension. The kernel in application of force during the 1980s in Afghanistan was heavy trust on aerial warfare, airborne military personnels and extended usage of armed choppers. However, dark and adverse-weather operations were about ne'er attempted, even when air support was severely needed by military personnels in trouble.[ 9 ]They were besides used in concurrence with conventional arms dwelling of armored combat vehicles ( T-72 ) and artillery guns ( 152mm automotive Mortars ) . The experience in Chechnya was slightly different from the erstwhile construct. Helicopters were now progressively being utilised chiefly for non-combat missions[ 10 ]and about 90 per cent of the wounded were evacuated by choppers.[ 11 ]This gave adequate grounds of the built-in potency to put to death combat support operations including medical emptying responsibilities, and combat hunt and deliverance.The Future: Particular Focus and Relevant IssuesWhat has now become Army Aviation was born and derived from an incontrovertible demand in the tactical sphere necessitating built-in intimate support from the air. With the addition in denseness of air vehicles and those envisaged to busy air space, which includes missiles and remote-controlled flights, the public-service corporation and keeping of ground forces air power equipped chiefly with rotary winged aircraft could good be contended. The relevant issue of aiming is an of import aspect in warfare. Ability to execute on nap-of-the-earth ( NOE ) winging which is virtually a proprietary claim, ability to vertically emerge from behind screen or obstruction, reconnoitre and even fire to destruct are inevitable chases and demand to retain the film editing border on a front line. When pitted against armor, and little and traveling marks the quandary of pin-point aiming from a fixed-wing tends to be aggravated. An appraisal of what is likely to act upon the battle-space in hereafter will acquire us to an understanding sing the figure of battling elements in struggle. This raises an issue of vulnearbility. High denseness of guided and unguided missiles with land forces create greater challenges of placing unexposed enemy and increased hazard of ain exposure to hostile fire. While defensive warning systems will help in countering air defense mechanism steps of the enemy, exposure to innocuous little weaponries fire can turn out to be deadly to low-flying aircraft. However, an nonsubjective appraisal would put the ground forces chopper in a better place to maneuver in and out of unsure missions in enemy district. The Forward Air Controller ( FAC ) takes charge of placing, turn uping and bespeaking the mark to the pilot in the combatant land onslaught aircraft, when considered indispensable. Immediate work stoppages are basically the same except that call for fire is handled by wireless and expedited through the system of field force as an immediate response. Army aeronauts executing the undertakings of FAC in such scenario will necessarily be capable to the clash expected from ‘unseen ‘ marks from a combatant aircraft winging at far greater velocity and at a different tallness set. There will be an increasing diffusion of the conflict infinite non depicted on the operational map. It will be an inevitable characteristic for the FAC to be besides considered a relevant mark to be ambushed at the earliest.[ 12 ] The dimensional enlargement with regard to use of air space would convey about the complex job of control and co-ordination of the air and land operations. While battlefield radio detection and rangings assist in air infinite direction the ability to widen their full spectrum of maps to moo winging aircraft at 30 meters above land degree ( AGL ) and beyond 50 kilometers from base will stay a primary concern. While the bid and control of land operations by the ‘war-managers ‘ can be effected by commanding officers being close to the military personnels, control of the air space assumes a complex and gigantic challenge. Operationalisation of Integrated Air Command and Control System ( IACCS ) with automated response may non be able to supply an full control over all air vehicles runing beyond ocular scope. The radio detection and rangings and bid Centres besides would be primary marks for hostile air power and enemy counter steps wanting suppression, hence the effectual bou nd of clip critical aid to army air power missions over significantly more strategic enterprise, will name for witting rating. Airspace direction and early warning are of import facets of support in combat. The flight profile of choppers by and large makes it hard for land radio detection and ranging to observe and prosecute them with anti-craft guns in good clip[ 13 ]but with Aerostats[ 14 ]and AWACS[ 15 ]in operational usage, sensing may non be the issue but designation will still stay a contention in a dense winging environment. It was by and large expected that in instance of war between NATO and Warsaw Pact forces, every bit many as 33 per cent aircraft losingss would be accounted for by friendly fire within the first 24 hours.[ 16 ]In the 1982 Lebanon War abrasion rate was imposed at an equal rate by friendly forces as compared to hostile action.[ 17 ] Dichotomies will ever be in the use of this elect corps equipped with various winging machines. A study was submitted during the Vietnam intercession sing task public presentation of UH-1E enlisted for public-service corporation missions during the period July 1966 to June 1967: – Administration/Liaison 5579 Tactical Air Controller ( Airborne ) 1086 Casualty emptying 1109 Command and Control 1099 Search and Rescue 116 Reconnaissance 1756 Entire 10745 The startling information was so announced. In add-on, to the flights listed another 19597 missions had been flown as armed choppers.[ 18 ]This gets interpreted as a listed vision runing from combat, combat support and combat service support operations the in use spectrum exposed to excessively accent on subjective readings of use. Similar illustrations are by far and many, and tendencies have non changed well. Army gunships besides tend to be overused and misused. In a survey conducted by BDM Corporation it was analysed that the land forces become quite fond of them and at critical times on occasion employed them in stead of tactical air and heavy weapon.[ 19 ] Technological progresss, nanotechnology and growing of digitization are altering constructs in modern warfare. While it may be hard to foretell the gait at which hereafter warfare will be contested, the common factor will be the functions that army air power will be required to execute. These will non be really diverse from what they are expected to and presenting today but will acquire combined with other platforms of the present and future coevals. This brings about the integrating of UAVs ( Unmanned Air Vehicles ) with functions and capablenesss of ground forces air power. It besides brings about the issue of sharing air infinite with these remote-controlled platforms without cut downing denominators to built-in undertakings. Tube launched and catapulted UAVs and micro aerial vehicles ( MAVs ) underscore the demand of a greater degree of planning and co-ordination for the land forces in the direction of their portion of ‘near-space ‘ 30-100 meters from land. At the sam e clip, ability to aim with remote-controlled aid and precise striking with human capacity for real-time analysis and prioritisation would further distinguishable possibilities of a higher grade of truth and efficaciousness. The ground forces believes combat as cardinal to war, and shutting with and destructing the enemy as cardinal to battle with all other elements in support, and air power being the manoevre component in such support. It is besides accepted that ground forces air power is really limited in its ability to execute interdiction missions and close air support which should be the duty of the Air Force. Therefore, doctrinally and besides practically the fixed flying assets of the ground forces would hold really limited public-service corporation except for possibly limited transit and communicating undertakings. However, we may see an addition in their Numberss alternatively when the issue of ‘hearing ‘ a chopper winging in a vale or in cragged terrain from stat mis, is evaluated. Besides, with comparative lower operating costs, initiation and use of fixed wing aircraft besides proves good in reconnaissance, current situational air exposure including transit where frontward set downing strips license. The reappraisal of tilt rotor V-22 Osprey aircraft were encouraging boulder clay weighed against a measure of $ 100 million per unit, missing manoevreability, slow descent and limited protection.[ 20 ]Operating such aircraft from the field and holding to be concerned with tactical scattering, disguise, enemy state of affairs, assembly country security, land to land every bit good as land to air communications jobs, and keeping aircraft from a field environment should, nevertheless, non be overlooked. Factors that contribute to the operational attraction of these aircraft are by and large associated with an airbase substructure and possible menaces near the landing evidences require active consideration. Military attempt is frequently directed at the high ranges of mountains. Whether it be contending in Afghanistan or keeping land in the Himalayas, a major part of struggle is witnessed in higher heights and therefore the operational bounds of public presentation demands critical rating both in footings of systems in usage and bounds of human endurance. Any troop carrying attempt or heavy armory would connote sulky manoevreability at that height. Army air power assets would however supply first-class properties in helping logistical and support steps including manned surveillance and reconnaissance. Tacticss and equipment will necessitate to be tailored to the different demands of mountain warfare.[ 21 ]This aspect requires more focal point as conditions in the higher ranges of the Himalayas are alone to us. Success or failure of a military operation will frequently be determined by the velocity with which the needed forces can be manoervred and moved into place at such high heights. Planing would besides necessitate to take history of the predominating air state of affairs ; due to their increasing function there will be marked exposure of ground forces air power aircraft from enemy air action. A favorable air state of affairs may good go an indispensable requirement for the employment of such assets in most operational scenarios. Military work stoppage for immediate success and consequence may ensue on a measured usage of Particular Forces ( SF ) . This would intend interdiction behind enemy lines fleetly and exactly at the same time with application of airpower for strategic surgical consequence and SF units for operational degree ends. This would ask the expedience of ground forces air power for rapid troop interpolation and unsnarling on completion of mission. At the conventional degree it would necessitate the enemy commanding officer to deploy military personnels in larger step for protection of their rear countries. Nuclear arsenal with states in struggle influences responses. Rise to the atomic threshold is an implied and immediate response, whether or non existent struggle takes topographic point.[ 22 ]Troop motion and application in a atomic battleground has been thought through the old ages, to be better feasible with choppers when clip is a premium, than any other manner.[ 23 ]Armored bearers with NBC protection have been evaluated as utile but ability to transport both military personnels and arms in a atomic battleground with just velocity and able to concentrate from spread landings is a characteristic acknowledged while sing tactical mobility in affected countries.[ 24 ]Survey and inert reconnaissance squads can be transported and commence operation within 15 proceedingss in the contaminated countries[ 25 ]provided the environment remains contributing for winging.[ 26 ]The bounds of survivability of aircraft and equipment in the presence or deficiency of field munitions when runing off from lasting air bases, and that of air power crew will necessitate rating exercisings. Army air power has found increased applications through the old ages and have become indispensable to many types of military operations. Helicopter support can be decisive when used rapidly to counter an enemy ‘s motion or when used to work success. Responsiveness means control, and control demands to be shifted to a lower degree for the chopper assets to do their full impact.Closing IdeasGiven myriad ongoing attempts across the air power community, it is critical that we maintain a long scope planning window that will let us to better place ourselves for upcoming challenges in a co-ordinated mode. In showing Army Aviation as an built-in portion of the hereafter force, we are obliged to hold clear vision of aims, functions and duties in order to efficaciously vie for the necessary capablenesss to take this arm into the following 25 old ages. The development of new schemes and procedures implementing them sagely and efficaciously while continuing indispensable bequest will keep high criterions of sustenance and operational support achieved by Army Aviation have achieved in recent old ages.

Pervasive Developmental Disorders Essay

The pervasive exploitational indispositions (PDDs) act as a spectrum of difficulties in genialization, dialogue, and bearing. Autism is the best recognised and virtually frequently add upring lay down of a group of the PDDs. Because almost of the query in argonas link to communication has been d angiotensin converting enzyme on autism, we testament focus here on this particular PDD. However, we should be aw be that autism is likely non the most common perturbation on this spectrum. Other causas of PDDs include Retts Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, Aspergers Disorder, and permeant Develop rational Disorder Not another(prenominal)wise Specified, or PDDNOS (Twachtman-Cullen 1998).This work will as well as discuss the clean-cutive features of Aspergers syndrome, which is believed to be genetically related to autism. Much of what mess be said slightly trustworthy features of autism and PDDNOS applies to other forms of non- ill PDD. The goal of this enquiry is to deliver the goods a framework for understanding cognitive development in boorren with PDDs. The need will cover criteria for too soon PDDs diagnosing. The best-kn admit type of PDDs is ill ailment (variously called autism or infantile autism).The symptoms of autistic turnover typically accession gradually by the childs second year, reach a boot between 2 and 4 historic period of age, and then show most rise. puppyish children with greater cognitive skill who throw very early intense encumbrance whitethorn show dramatic improvement at this age, whereas those who ar more(prenominal) damage will make more humiliated changes. Persons with autistic disturbance exhibit study deficits in their capacity to relate to others. The child with autistic deflect frequently counts subject ara to dwell in a straighten out world, showing in qualified empathic please in promotes or siblings.Unlike the ordinarily ontogeny baby, the child with autis tic disorder whitethorn non raise his blazonry to be picked up or whitethorn stiffen in protest when his p atomic pret shutting 18nts find out to cuddle him. The childrens lack of neighborly interest may make any(prenominal) of these babies expect like easy babies because they do non seek pargonntal worry, and appear content to remain in their cribs, ceremony a mobile or arrant(a) at their hands. As they get older, much(prenominal) lack of demandingness is recognized for the relative impassivity it actually reflects.The child with autistic disorder may not seek others for rank when she is hurt or upset, finding petty(a) consolation in the gentle haggling and hugs that ar so authorised to other children. Not only do the children not ask for comfort, they typically ar instead indifferent to other peoples tribulation and do not seem to sh ar their mirth. A siblings tears or a parents happiness may pull out no response from the child with autistic disorder. Chi ldren with autistic disorder show little interest in the domestic travesty that most children enjoy.For example, unlike the normally developing child, the child with autistic disorder ordinarily does not use his miniature mower to cut the grass like mammary gland or pre track down to s harbour art object he watches daddy. This lack of interest in imitation interferes with one of the primary bring for learning by young children their ability to model adult behaviors and master them through role hightail it. Social cheer is one of the primary activities of childhood. A few simple-minded toys displace create the backdrop for yen hours of companionship.The child with autistic disorder does not know how to join this kind of play, sometimes completely ignoring other children, or perhaps standing on the sidelines, not comprehending how to rick part of the group. Not impressly, given the regurgitate of accessible deficits they exhibit, children with autistic disorder are very impair in their ability to make childhood friends. Within the communication domain, impairments are present in a number of linguistic and non communicatory areas, the most sound of which are pragmatics and semantics (i. . , the loving example and explicit or implicit essence of speech communication and gestures). Although linguistic capability varies greatly across the spectrum (from a total absence seizure of speech to exceedingly sophisticated and knowing lyric), signifi screwingt impairments in pragmatics and semantics are ordinary among individuals with PDDs. They communicate primarily to express needs, desires, and preferences, rather than to convey sincere interest in others, or to share experiences, excitement, and feelings.Even among those possessing highly sophisticated and complex language, compliments, words of empathy, and expressions of joy in the good fortune of others are very rare. at that place is little reciprocity, mutuality, or shared purpose in disc ussions. In addition, speech and gestural forms of communication are poorly integ wanderd, practically willing in ill at ease(p) and uncomfortable tender interactions. Implicit, subtle, and indirect communications are neither used nor perceived. communicative communication disposes to be explicit, direct, and concrete.During discussions, persons with autism lots interrupt to prepare their mouth partners for conversational transitions, radical topics, or in the flesh(predicate) associations. This can result in digressive, circumstantial, and tangential comments and discussions. It would appear as though persons with autism assume that others are implicitly aware of their experiences, viewpoints, postures, and thoughts. The fashion in which these deficits are manifest is influenced by age, overall cognitive level, temperament, and the presence of sensory or carnal limitations.In t spottylers, for example, impaired pragmatics may be manifested by portentous limitations in mutual eye contact, responsive smiling, joint attention (mutual sharing of interests and excitement), and social imitative play. In addition, socially directed facial expressions, legal instrumental and emphatic gestures, and modulation of speech prosody (intonation, cadence, and rate) are rarely used to equilibrise speech, communicate feelings and attitudes, or moderate social discourse. Among preschool children, impairments in symbolic performance (e. g. , language) are accompanied by serious limitations in pretense (e. g. ymbolic, imaginative, creative, and interactive play).Pragmatic impairments among adolescents with Aspergers syndrome may be manifested by one-sided, donnish discussions, with no attempt to involve speaking partners by acknowledging and integrating their experiences, ideas, and viewpoints into conversations. Sincere attempts by others to engage in reciprocal conversations may be met with a lack of acknowledgment, annoyance, and disinterest. Comments or qu estions that are snuck in by the at executeer may be see as rude interruptions, prompting the directive, Wait Im not done talk yet (Bernabei, Camaioni & Levi 1998).The result is a monologue or lecture that often includes frank changes of topic and the introduction of unexplained personal associations. This lack of conversational reciprocity suggests that persons with AS and high- mathematical process autism inherently assume that the tender is implicitly aware of their own experiences, viewpoints, and captive. Because the relaying of genuine and concrete information is the primary goal of social dialog among those with ASD, the communication of subtle attitudes, viewpoints, and emotions (particularly second-string emotions, such as embarrassment, guilt, and envy) are for the most part irrelevant and superfluous.thitherfore, emphatic gestures, informative facial expressions, and vocal modulation lack innate intend for them. The result is that persons with autism worldwi dely turn out nonverbal cues and fail to incorporate them into their own discussions. Because this component of social communication often conveys essential information regarding feelings, attitudes, and opinions, an inability to identify, interpret, and educate nonverbal cues can take in a highly detrimental effect on social interactions and relationships.Given these impairments, it is not surprising that verbal and nonverbal aspects of communication are poorly integrated, and that subtlety and nuance are rarely conveyed. Figurative and inferential language is another area of communication that is impaired in autism, largely due to a combination of deficits in abstract and conceptual thought, social reciprocity, and appreciation of the subtleties of social communication. Persons with ASD are highly literal and concrete in their language and thought processing, typically helplessness to understand metaphor, irony, sarcasm, and facetiousness.As a result, comments are often misint erpreted and discussions misunderstood. In addition, in an exertion to remain true to the facts, comments and questions are often presented in an overly direct, straightforward, and brutally trusty manner, lacking appropriate tact and aesthesia (Szatmari, Jones, Fisman, Tuff, Bartolucci, Mahoney 1995). This can cause embarrassment and ditenseness for the listener and confusion for the speaker with AS. some(prenominal) may frame angry and vicious the listener, because of aflame distress and perceived mis discourse the speaker, because of the apparently unjustifiable overreaction and a negative attitude displayed by the listener. From the perspective of the person with AS, the listener responded in a rude and ungrateful manner to comments that were intended to be informative, useful, and corrective. The emotional distress, embarrassment, and attack on self-esteem experience by the listener are comparatively foreign to the individual with autism.Interestingly, principles, rule s, and codes of behavior can be interpreted in a highly concrete and rigid manner. This can result in insensitive and noisome comments and behavior, because exceptions to the rule, adjustments to unexpected social contingencies, and appreciation for the scent (not simply the letter) of the law are comparatively foreign to those with autism. There is little sentiency that rigid adherence to unavoidably blemished rules can result in a situation that is antithetical to the inherent intent of the rule itself. matchless of the dinning features of autism and Aspergers syndrome is that of rigidity and inflexibility in response to shaver change and transition in the milieu and daily routines. This insistence on humdrum and invariance can be highly impairing, because the precipitants of these reactions often are of little social significance and do not unhinge the smooth functioning of the social world. It is as though persons with autism depend on these non-living markers of space a nd time because the social priorities that typically direct schedules and routines have little meaning and significance for them.Aspergers Syndrome has been associated with cognitive authority since Hans Asperger first described the disorder in the 1940s. When he wrote of children who sounded like little professors, Dr. Asperger (1944/1991) was describing not only their pedantic tone save also their cognitive abilities. The assumption of adequate cognitive skill was reiterated when the Diagnostic and statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) stated that individuals with Aspergers Syndrome show no clinically significant delay in cognitive development (Willey 2001).Aspergers syndrome (AS) was added as a clean official diagnosis when DSMIV and ICD-10 were published. In the past, children with AS were sometimes referred to as having schizoid personality, or schizotypal personality, and PDD, NOS. It is now recognized as distinct from autism. AS differs from autism in a number of severalize ways first, children with AS may not be detected as early because they may have no delays in language, or only fruity delays. In fact, it is usually not until parents admit that their childs use of language is unusual, or their childs play is also unusual, that concern sets in.Unlike autism, where the commodious bulk of children also experience some degree of mental retardation, children (and adults) with AS are rarely mentally retarded although many another(prenominal) have low-average intelligence. Children with AS are sometimes described as active, and odd not avoiding others the way autistic children often do, but relating in a more narrow way, usually centering action mechanism around their own needs and unmated interests. In fact, having one or more areas of narrow, encompassing interest is highly lineament of those with AS.Parents often ask whether AS is the very(prenominal) thing as high-functioning autism. Research studies have addressed this question , and the answer is no (Fombonne, Simmons, Ford, Meltzer & Goodman 2001). One main difference is that children with AS tend to have fairly comparable verbal and nonverbal levels of intelligence, while higher functioning (that is, less cognitively impaired) autistic children tend to have nonverbal IQs that are markedly higher than their verbal IQs. Another bring out feature of AS is the presence of intense, preoccupying interests that globally are unusual in spirit and highly restricted and narrow in scope and breadth.An impressive store of factual association is accrued on relatively esoteric topics however, this knowledge is rarely use for functional, socially meaningful purposes. Rather, factual knowledge is pursued for its own intrinsic value to the AS individual. In addition, children and adults with AS tend to be physically awkward, uncoordinated, and poor in judging visual-spatial perspective (often failing to fend for comfortable interpersonal space during social intera ctions). With regard to neuropsychological functioning, verbal abilities are generally much better certain than are nonverbal abilities (e. . , perceptualmotor, visual-spatial).In a majority of cases impairments are present in executive functions, including working memory, organization, and cognitive-set flexibility. Although children with AS are thought to show no general cognitive delay, there is actually a great deal of variability in the specific abilities of individuals. In spite of great deal media suggestions that individuals with AS grow up to be scientists or software engineers, we do not yet have data to expect this connection. For most children, the PDDs last a lifetime.Although early intervention for many young children with autistic disorder, Asperegers disorder, and PDDNOS has produced major developmental changes, the engineering science has not yet reached the point where the majority of children make the degree of change that allows them to get imperceptibly int o their peer group. As a result, although most children with PDDs benefit in important ways from manipulation, many still become adults with PDDs or some significant residuals of PDDs. There are no details of what causes PDDs.There appears to be a genetic component to at least some kinds of autistic disorder. For example, slim X syndrome is a chromosomal disorder than long has been linked to mental retardation and more novelly has been shown to be related to autistic disorder. This disorder gets its name from a narrowing near the end of the long arm of the X chromosome that sometimes makes the tip fragile. Fragile X syndrome shows an X-linked (sex gene-linked) recessive allele manikin of inheritance. As a result, this disorder typically is transmitted to boys by their mothers.Fragile X syndrome accounts for a small but significant number of boys diagnosed with autistic disorder. public support for the notion that the symptoms of autistic disorder reflect underlying physiologic al dysfunction comes from query showing that autistic disorder occurs more often than would be predicted by chance among children whose mothers had German measles during pregnancy, that these children experienced a higher than expected rate of problems during pregnancy or birth, and that they are at greater risk for seizures than other children.Findings such as these raise important questions active where in the brain abnormalities may occur and how these neurochemical, biochemical, or neurological factors may be linked specifically to the development of the language, social, necessitateive, and behavioural symptoms that characterize autistic disorder and the other PDDs. The process of faithful diagnosis and classification is an essential endeavor in medicine, because it is key to ensuring sensibleity and reliability, enabling etiological research, and identifying powerful methods of treatment.Although ASDs are not medical illnesses in the classical sense, they do result fro m neurodevelopmental abnormalities that affect social, communicative, and behavioral functioning in fundamental ways. The autism is not a unitary turn back with a single etiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, and treatment cost rather, it is a group of related conditions that share many clinical features and underlying social-communicative impairments.The fundamental purpose of arriving at an accurate diagnosis is to promote meaningful research that will crimsontually lead to good treatment and an ultimate cure. Accurate diagnosis also enables investigators, clinicians, educators, and parents to communicate clearly, effectively, and efficiently. Ideally, a valid and reliable diagnosis should convey a great deal of information about developmental strengths and weaknesses, short- and long-term prognosis, and treatments that are most likely to be effective.Both grassroots and applied research endeavors are enhance by improvements in diagnosis and classification. During rec ent years, efforts have been made to identify ASD as early in life as possible, in order to begin implementing educational and treatment interventions providing families with education, support, and community resources and reducing the stress and anxiety families experience as a result of incorrect or lead astray diagnoses. The importance of an early diagnosis is back up by findings of improved linguistic, cognitive, and adaptive functioning as a result of intensive early intervention.Studies have begun to appear in the research literature tasking the reliability and perceptual constancy of autism diagnoses made during the early preschool years. Experienced clinical investigators have present that an accurate diagnosis of autism can be made in the second and third years of life. However, verity depends on the completion of a comprehensive, interdisciplinary assessment, one that includes the use of standardized diagnostic instruments in conjunction with clinical expertise.None theless, even among experienced clinicians and investigators, stupid positive and false negative diagnoses are sometimes made. Investigators have begun to examine clinical variables that may be predictive of treatment response and general prognosis. For example, Handleman & Harris (2001) found that preschool children with autism who exhibited low baseline levels of social avoidance experienced significantly more social and linguistic progress than did their high-avoidance counterparts undermentioned 6 months of intensive incidental doctrine and pivotal response training (provided in an inclusive setting).A complementary schema for assessing the validity of AS is to examine the pattern of associated symptomatology. In this regard, a recent study investigated emotional and behavioral disturbance (psychopathology) in 4 to 18-year-olds with HFA and AS. The Developmental Behavior Checklist (DBC), an informant-based instrument completed by parents and teachers, was used to assess psyc hopathology. The DBC contains the following six subscales profuse, self-absorbed, communication disturbance, anxiety, antisocial, and autistic relating.Children and adolescents with AS exhibited high levels of psychopathology, particularly disruptive behavior, anxiety, and problems with social relationships. The best documented approach to the treatment of people with PDDs is a form of behavior therapy called applied behavior analysis. Since the mid-1960s, when Ivar Lovaas and his colleagues demonstrate that children with autism responded to carefully planned applied behavior analytic techniques, there has been extensive research on the use of these methods to treat the PDDs, curiously for autistic disorder, Aspergers disorder, and PDDNOS (Durand 1990).Three decades of research have contributed to the development of a literal array of specific behavioral treatment techniques and of documentation to support the efficacy of these methods in treatment of PDDs. This research also ha s demonstrated the essential role that parents can play in the treatment of their children by providing unity of intervention between home and school, or even in some cases as the childs primary therapist.